RNA-guided gene editing and gene regulation

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) 9-based system related compositions and methods of using said CRISPR/Cas9-based system related compositions for altering gene expression and genome engineering. Also disclosed herein are compositions and methods of using said compositions for altering gene expression and genome engineering in muscle, such as skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.14/895,316 filed Dec. 2, 2015, which is a national stage filing under 35U.S.C. 371 of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2014/041190,filed Jun. 5, 2014, which claims the benefit of priority to U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/831,481, filed Jun. 5, 2013, U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/839,127, filed Jun. 25, 2013, U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/904,911, filed Nov. 15, 2013, U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/967,466, filed Mar. 19, 2014, and U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/981,575, filed Apr. 18, 2014, all ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST

This invention was made with government support under federal grantnumbers DP2-OD008586 and R01DA036865 awarded by NIH and CBET-1151035awarded by the National Science Foundation. The U.S. Government hascertain rights to this invention.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has beensubmitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated byreference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Jul. 6, 2018, isnamed “028193-9164-US04_As_Filed_Subst_Sequence_Listing” and is 331,443bytes in size.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to the field of gene expressionalteration, genome engineering and genomic alteration of genes usingClustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats(CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) 9-based systems and viral deliverysystems. The present disclosure also relates to the field of genomeengineering and genomic alteration of genes in muscle, such as skeletalmuscle and cardiac muscle.

BACKGROUND

Synthetic transcription factors have been engineered to control geneexpression for many different medical and scientific applications inmammalian systems, including stimulating tissue regeneration, drugscreening, compensating for genetic defects, activating silenced tumorsuppressors, controlling stem cell differentiation, performing geneticscreens, and creating synthetic gene circuits. These transcriptionfactors can target promoters or enhancers of endogenous genes, or bepurposefully designed to recognize sequences orthogonal to mammaliangenomes for transgene regulation. The most common strategies forengineering novel transcription factors targeted to user-definedsequences have been based on the programmable DNA-binding domains ofzinc finger proteins and transcription-activator like effectors (TALEs).Both of these approaches involve applying the principles of protein-DNAinteractions of these domains to engineer new proteins with uniqueDNA-binding specificity. Although these methods have been widelysuccessful for many applications, the protein engineering necessary formanipulating protein-DNA interactions can be laborious and requirespecialized expertise.

Additionally, these new proteins are not always effective. The reasonsfor this are not yet known but may be related to the effects ofepigenetic modifications and chromatin state on protein binding to thegenomic target site. In addition, there are challenges in ensuring thatthese new proteins, as well as other components, are delivered to eachcell. Existing methods for delivering these new proteins and theirmultiple components include delivery to cells on separate plasmids orvectors which leads to highly variable expression levels in each celldue to differences in copy number. Additionally, gene activationfollowing transfection is transient due to dilution of plasmid DNA, andtemporary gene expression may not be sufficient for inducing therapeuticeffects. Furthermore, this approach is not amenable to cell types thatare not easily transfected. Thus another limitation of these newproteins is the potency of transcriptional activation.

Site-specific nucleases can be used to introduce site-specific doublestrand breaks at targeted genomic loci. This DNA cleavage stimulates thenatural DNA-repair machinery, leading to one of two possible repairpathways. In the absence of a donor template, the break will be repairedby non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), an error-prone repair pathway thatleads to small insertions or deletions of DNA. This method can be usedto intentionally disrupt, delete, or alter the reading frame of targetedgene sequences. However, if a donor template is provided along with thenucleases, then the cellular machinery will repair the break byhomologous recombination, which is enhanced several orders of magnitudein the presence of DNA cleavage. This method can be used to introducespecific changes in the DNA sequence at target sites. Engineerednucleases have been used for gene editing in a variety of human stemcells and cell lines, and for gene editing in the mouse liver. However,the major hurdle for implementation of these technologies is delivery toparticular tissues in vivo in a way that is effective, efficient, andfacilitates successful genome modification.

Hereditary genetic diseases have devastating effects on children in theUnited States. These diseases currently have no cure and can only bemanaged by attempts to alleviate the symptoms. For decades, the field ofgene therapy has promised a cure to these diseases. However technicalhurdles regarding the safe and efficient delivery of therapeutic genesto cells and patients have limited this approach. Duchenne MuscularDystrophy (DMD) is the most common hereditary monogenic disease andoccurs in 1 in 3500 males. DMD is the result of inherited or spontaneousmutations in the dystrophin gene. Dystrophin is a key component of aprotein complex that is responsible for regulating muscle cell integrityand function. DMD patients typically lose the ability to physicallysupport themselves during childhood, become progressively weaker duringthe teenage years, and die in their twenties. Current experimental genetherapy strategies for DMD require repeated administration of transientgene delivery vehicles or rely on permanent integration of foreigngenetic material into the genomic DNA. Both of these methods haveserious safety concerns. Furthermore, these strategies have been limitedby an inability to deliver the large and complex dystrophin genesequence.

SUMMARY

The present invention is directed to a fusion protein comprising twoheterologous polypeptide domains. The first polypeptide domain comprisesa Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats associated(Cas) protein and the second polypeptide domain has an activity selectedfrom the group consisting of transcription activation activity,transcription repression activity, transcription release factoractivity, histone modification activity, nuclease activity, nucleic acidassociation activity, methylase activity, and demethylase activity. TheCas protein may comprise Cas9. The Cas9 may comprise at least one aminoacid mutation which knocks out nuclease activity of Cas9. The at leastone amino acid mutation may be at least one of D10A and H840A. The Casprotein may comprise iCas9 (amino acids 36-1403 of SEQ ID NO: 1). Thesecond polypeptide domain may have transcription activation activity.The second polypeptide domain may comprise at least one VP16transcription activation domain repeat. The second polypeptide domainmay comprise a VP16 tetramer (“VP64”) or a p65 activation domain. Thefusion protein may further comprise a linker connecting the firstpolypeptide domain to the second polypeptide domain. The fusion proteinmay comprise iCas9-VP64.

The present invention is directed to a DNA targeting system comprisingsaid fusion protein and at least one guide RNA (gRNA). The at least onegRNA may comprise a 12-22 base pair complementary polynucleotidesequence of the target DNA sequence followed by a protospacer-adjacentmotif. The at least one gRNA may target a promoter region of a gene, anenhancer region of a gene, or a transcribed region of a gene. The atleast one gRNA may target an intron of a gene. The at least one gRNA maytarget an exon of a gene. The at least one gRNA may target a thepromoter region of a gene selected from the group consisting of ASCL1,BRN2, MYT1L, NANOG, VEGFA, TERT, IL1B, IL1R2, IL1RN, HBG1, HBG2, andMYOD1. The at least one gRNA may comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOs:5-40, 65-144, 492-515, 540-563, and 585-625.

The present invention is directed to a DNA targeting system that bindsto a dystrophin gene comprising Cas9 and at least one guide RNA (gRNA).The at least one gRNA may target an intron of the dystrophin gene. Theat least one gRNA may target an exon of the dystrophin gene. The atleast one guide RNA may comprise at least one of SEQ ID NOs: 5-40,65-144, 492-515, 540-563, and 585-625. The DNA targeting system maycomprise between one and ten different gRNAs.

The present invention is directed to an isolated polynucleotide encodingsaid fusion protein or said DNA targeting system.

The present invention is directed to a vector comprising said isolatedpolynucleotide.

The present invention is directed to a cell comprising said isolatedpolynucleotide or said vector.

The present invention is directed to a method of modulating mammaliangene expression in a cell. The method comprises contacting the cell withsaid fusion protein, said DNA targeting system, said isolatedpolynucleotide, or said vector. The gene expression may be induced.

The present invention is directed to a method of transdifferentiating orinducing differentiation of a cell. The method comprises contacting thecell with said fusion protein, said DNA targeting system, said isolatedpolynucleotide, or said vector. The cell may be a fibroblast cell or aninduced pluripotent stem cells. The fibroblast cell may betrandifferentiated into a neuronal cell or a myogenic cell. The DNAtargeting system may be contacted with the cell and at least one gRNAtargets a promoter region of at least one gene selected from the groupconsisting of ASCL1, BRN2, MYOD1, and MYT1L. The DNA targeting systemmay comprise at least one gRNA that targets the promoter region of theASCL1 gene and at least one gRNA that targets the promoter region of theBRN2 gene. The DNA targeting system may comprise between one and twentydifferent gRNAs. The DNA targeting system may comprise 8 or 16 differentgRNAs. The DNA targeting system may comprise dCas9-VP64. The DNAtargeting system may be delivered to the cell virally or non-virally.

The present invention is directed to a method of correcting a mutantgene in a cell. The method comprises administering to a cell containingsaid DNA targeting system, said isolated polynucleotide, or said vector.The correction of the mutant gene may comprise homology-directed repair.The method may further comprise administering to the cell a donor DNA.The mutant gene may comprise a frameshift mutation which causes apremature stop codon and a truncated gene product. The correction of themutant gene may comprise nuclease mediated non-homologous end joining.The correction of the mutant gene may comprise a deletion of a prematurestop codon, a disruption of a splice acceptor site, a deletion of one ormore exons, or disruption of a splice donor sequence. The deletion ofone or more exons may result in the correction of the reading frame.

The present invention is directed to a method of treating a subject inneed thereof having a mutant dystrophin gene. The method comprisesadministering to the subject said DNA targeting system, said isolatedpolynucleotide, or said vector. The subject may be suffering fromDuchenne muscular dystrophy.

The present invention is directed to a method of correcting a mutantdystrophin gene in a cell. The method comprises administering to a cellcontaining a mutant dystrophin gene said DNA targeting system, saidisolated polynucleotide, said vector, or said cell. The mutantdystrophin gene may comprise a premature stop codon, disrupted readingframe via gene deletion, an aberrant splice acceptor site, or anaberrant splice donor site, and wherein the target region is upstream ordownstream of the premature stop codon, disrupted reading frame,aberrant splice acceptor site, or the aberrant splice donor site. Thecorrection of the mutant dystrophin gene may comprise homology-directedrepair. The method may further comprise administering to the cell adonor DNA. The mutant dystrophin gene may comprise a frameshift mutationwhich causes a premature stop codon and a truncated gene product. Thecorrection of the mutant dystrophin gene may comprise nuclease mediatednon-homologous end joining. The correction of the mutant dystrophin genemay comprise a deletion of a premature stop codon, correction of adisrupted reading frame, or modulation of splicing by disruption of asplice acceptor site or disruption of a splice donor sequence. Thecorrection of the mutant dystrophin gene may comprise a deletion ofexons 45-55 or exon 51.

The present invention is directed to a kit comprising said fusionprotein, said DNA targeting system, said isolated polynucleotide, saidvector, or said cell.

The present invention is directed to a method of modulating mammaliangene expression in a cell. The method comprises contacting the cell witha polynucleotide encoding a DNA targeting system. The DNA targetingsystem comprises said fusion protein and at least one guide RNA (gRNA).The DNA targeting system may comprise between one and ten differentgRNAs. The different gRNAs may bind to different target regions withinthe target gene. The target regions may be separated by at least onenucleotide. The target regions may be separated by about 15 to about 700base pairs. Each of the different gRNAs may bind to at least onedifferent target genes. The different target genes may be located onsame chromosome. The different target genes may be located on differentchromosomes. The at least one target region may be within a non-openchromatin region, an open chromatin region, a promoter region of thetarget gene, an enhancer region of the target gene, a transcribed regionof the target gene, or a region upstream of a transcription start siteof the target gene. The at least one target region may be locatedbetween about 1 to about 1000 base pairs upstream of a transcriptionstart site of a target gene. The at least one target region may belocated between about 1 to about 600 base pairs upstream of atranscription start site of a target gene. The gene expression may beinduced. The DNA targeting system may comprise two different gRNAs,three different gRNAs, four different gRNAs, five different gRNAs, sixdifferent gRNAs, seven different gRNAs, eight different gRNAs, ninedifferent gRNAs, or ten different gRNAs. The at least one guide RNA maytarget a promoter region of a gene selected from the group consisting ofASCL1, BRN2, MYT1L, NANOG, VEGFA, TERT, IL1B, IL1R2, IL1RN, HBG1, HBG2,and MY0D1. The at least one guide RNA may comprise at least one of SEQID NOs: 5-40, 65-144, 492-515, 540-563, and 585-625. The at least onetarget region may be within an intron or an exon of a target gene.

The present invention is directed to a composition for inducingmammalian gene expression in a cell. The composition comprises saidfusion protein and at least one guide RNA (gRNA).

The present invention is directed to a composition for inducingmammalian gene expression in a cell. The composition comprises anisolated polynucleotide sequence encoding said fusion protein and atleast one guide RNA (gRNA). The at least one guide RNA may target apromoter region of a gene selected from the group consisting of ASCL1,BRN2, MYT1L, NANOG, VEGFA, TERT, IL1B, IL1R2, IL1RN, HBG1, HBG2, andMYOD1. The at least one guide RNA may comprise at least one of SEQ IDNOs5-40, 65-144, 492-515, 540-563, and 585-625.

The present invention is directed to a cell comprising said compositionfor inducing mammalian gene expression in a cell.

The present invention is directed to a kit comprising said compositionfor inducing mammalian gene expression in a cell or said cell comprisingsaid composition for inducing mammalian gene expression in a cell.

The present invention is directed to a kit for inducing mammalian geneexpression in a cell. The kit comprises said composition for inducingmammalian gene expression in a cell or said cell comprising saidcomposition for inducing mammalian gene expression in a cell.

The present invention is directed to a composition for genome editing ina muscle of a subject. The composition comprises a modifiedadeno-associated virus (AAV) vector and a nucleotide sequence encoding asite-specific nuclease. The muscle is skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle.The modified AAV vector may have enhanced cardiac and skeletal muscletissue tropism. The site-specific nuclease may comprise a zinc fingernuclease, a TAL effector nuclease, or a CRISPR/Cas9 system. Thesite-specific nuclease may bind a gene or locus in the cell of themuscle. The gene or locus may be dystrophin gene. The composition mayfurther comprise a donor DNA or transgene.

The present invention is directed to a kit comprising said compositionfor genome editing in a muscle of a subject.

The present invention is directed to a method of genome editing in amuscle of a subject. The method comprises administering to the musclesaid composition for genome editing in a muscle of a subject, whereinthe muscle is skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle. The genome editing maycomprise correcting a mutant gene or inserting a transgene. Correcting amutant gene may comprise deleting, rearranging, or replacing the mutantgene. Correcting the mutant gene may comprise nuclease-mediatednon-homologous end joining or homology-directed repair.

The present invention is directed to a method of treating a subject. Themethod comprises administering said composition for genome editing in amuscle of a subject to a muscle of the subject, wherein the muscle isskeletal muscle or cardiac muscle. The subject may be suffering from askeletal muscle condition or a genetic disease. The subject may besuffering from Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

The present invention is directed to a method of correcting a mutantgene in a subject, the method comprises administering said compositionfor genome editing in a muscle of a subject. The muscle is skeletalmuscle or cardiac muscle. The composition may be injected into theskeletal muscle of the subject. The composition may be injectedsystemically to the subject. The skeletal muscle may be tibialisanterior muscle.

The present invention is directed to a modified lentiviral vector forgenome editing in a subject comprising a first polynucleotide sequenceencoding said fusion protein and a second polynucleotide sequenceencoding at least one sgRNA. The first polynucleotide sequence may beoperably linked to a first promoter. The first promoter may be aconstitutive promoter, an inducible promoter, a repressible promoter, ora regulatable promoter. The second polynucleotide sequence may encodebetween one and ten different sgRNAs. The second polynucleotide sequencemay encode two different sgRNAs, three different sgRNAs, four differentsgRNAs, five different sgRNAs, six different sgRNAs, seven differentsgRNAs, eight different sgRNAs, nine different sgRNAs, or ten differentsgRNAs. Each of the polynucleotide sequences encoding the differentsgRNAs may be operably linked to a promoter. Each of the promotersoperably linked to the different sgRNAs may be the same promoter. Eachof the promoters operably linked to the different sgRNAs may bedifferent promoters. The promoter may be a constitutive promoter, aninducible promoter, a repressible promoter, or a regulatable promoter.The sgRNA may bind to a target gene. Each of the sgRNA may bind to adifferent target region within one target loci. Each of the sgRNA maybind to a different target region within different gene loci. The fusionprotein may comprise Cas9 protein or iCas9-VP64 protein. The fusionprotein may comprise a VP64 domain, a p300 domain, or a KRAB domain. Thetwo or more endogenous genes may be transcriptionally activated. The twoor more endogenous genes may be repressed.

The present invention is directed to a method of activating anendogenous gene in a cell. The method comprises contacting a cell withsaid modified lentiviral vector. The endogenous gene may be transientlyactivated. The endogenous gene may be stably activated. The endogenousgene may be transiently repressed. The endogenous gene may be stablyrepressed. The fusion protein may be expressed at similar levels to thesgRNAs. The fusion protein may be expressed at different levels to thesgRNAs. The cell may be a primary human cell.

The present invention is directed to a method of multiplex gene editingin a cell. The method comprises contacting a cell with said modifiedlentiviral vector. The multiplex gene editing may comprise correcting atleast one mutant gene or inserting a transgene. Correcting a mutant genemay comprise deleting, rearranging, or replacing the at least one mutantgene. Correcting the at least one mutant gene may comprisenuclease-mediated non-homologous end joining or homology-directedrepair. The multiplex gene editing may comprise deleting at least onegene, wherein the gene is an endogenous normal gene or a mutant gene.The multiplex gene editing may comprise deleting at least two genes. Themultiplex gene editing may comprise deleting between two and ten genes.

The present invention is directed to a method of modulating geneexpression of at least one target gene in a cell. The method comprisescontacting a cell with said modified lentiviral vector. The geneexpression of at least two genes may be modulated. The gene expressionof between two genes and ten genes may be modulated. The gene expressionof the at least one target gene may be modulated when gene expressionlevels of the at least one target gene are increased or decreasedcompared to normal gene expression levels for the at least one targetgene.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1F show RNA-guided activation of the human IL1RN gene byiCas9-VP64. FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B show an RNA-guided transcriptionalactivator was created by fusing the inactivated Cas9 (iCas9, D10A/H840A)to the VP64 transactivation domain. iCas9-VP64 recognizes genomic targetsites through the hybridization of a guide RNA (gRNA) to a 20 bp targetsequence. FIG. 1C shows expression plasmids for four gRNAs orcrRNA/tracrRNAs targeted to sequences in the IL1RN promoter wereco-transfected with the iCas9-VP64 expression plasmid into HEK293Tcells. Activation of IL1RN expression was assessed by qRT-PCR. FIG. 1Dshows four gRNA expression plasmids were co-transfected with iCas9-VP64individually or in combination. Robust gene activation was observed byqRT-PCR only in response to the combination of gRNAs. FIG. 1E showsactivation of IL1RN expression was confirmed by assessing secretion ofthe IL-1ra gene product into the media by ELISA. IL-1ra was onlydetected in three of the six samples treated with the combination ofgRNAs. For FIG. 1C and FIG. 1E, data are shown as the mean±s.e.m. (n=3independent experiments). Treatment with the combination of gRNAs wasstatistically different than all other treatments (*P≤0.02) by Tukey'stest. FIG. 1F shows RNA-seq was performed on samples treated with emptyexpression vector (n=2) or co-transfected with the expression plasmidsfor iCas9-VP64 and the four gRNAs targeting IL1RN (n=2). The onlystatistically significant changes in gene expression between thesetreatments were an increase in the four IL1RN isoforms (false discoveryrate≤3×10⁻⁴) and a decrease in IL32 (false discovery rate=0.03).

FIGS. 2A-2H show RNA-guided activation of human genes relevant to celland gene therapy, genetic reprogramming, and regenerative medicine.HEK293T cells were transfected with the iCas9-VP64 expression plasmidand four gRNAs individually or in combination. Target gene expressionwas measured by qRT-PCR and normalized to GAPDH mRNA levels. Data areshown as the mean±s.e.m. (n=3 independent experiments). Treatment withthe combination of gRNAs was statistically different than all othertreatments (*P<0.05) by Tukey's test.

FIG. 3 shows expression of iCas9-VP64. Expression of iCas9-VP64 intransfected HEK293 cells was confirmed by western blot for theN-terminal Flag epitope tag. The wt Cas9 expression plasmid does notcontain the epitope tag.

FIGS. 4A-4D show positions of gRNA target sites and DNAsehypersensitivity of human target genes. The four gRNA target sites foreach locus are designated as custom tracks above each gene and DNase-seqdata indicating DNAse-hypersensitive open chromatin regions is shownbelow each gene. DNase-seq was performed in HEK293T cells to identifyDNase hypersensitive regions, as previously described (Song et al., ColdSpring Harbor protocols 2010, pdb prot5384 (2010); Song et al. GenomeRes 21, 1757-1767 (2011)). The results show that open chromatin was nota requirement for gene activation by combinations of gRNAs withiCas9-VP64.

FIG. 5 shows the absence of nuclease activity by iCas9-VP64. Wild-typeCas9 or inactivated (D10A, H840A) iCas9-VP64 expression plasmids wereco-transfected with expression plasmids for four different guide RNAstargeting the IL1RN promoter. Nuclease activity was determined by theSurveyor assay (Guschin et al., Methods Mol Biol 649, 247-256 (2010)).The lower molecular weight bands indicative of nuclease activity and DNArepair by non-homologous end joining are only present followingtreatment with wild-type Cas9, supporting abrogation of nucleaseactivity by iCas9-VP64.

FIG. 6 shows RNA-seq for samples treated with gRNAs targeting HBG1 andHBG2. RNA-seq was performed on samples treated with a control emptyexpression vector (n=3) or cotransfected with the expression plasmidsfor iCas9-VP64 and the four gRNAs targeting HBG1 (n=2). Three of thesegRNAs also target HBG2. Increases in both HBG1 and HBG2 relative tocontrol were observed but were not statistically significant due to lowexpression levels. The only statistically significant changes in geneexpression between these treatments were decreases in IL32 (falsediscovery rate=0.0007) and TNFRS9 (false discovery rate=0.002).

FIG. 7 shows upregulation of Ascl1 and γ-globin by iCas9-VP64. HEK293Tcells were transfected with iCas9-VP64 and four gRNAs targeting the ASCUor HBG1 promoter. Levels of corresponding Ascl1 and γ-globin proteinproduction were assessed by western blot. Low levels of these proteinswere detectable in HEK293T cells and increases in expression weredetectable following iCas9-VP64 treatment in two independentexperiments.

FIGS. 8A-8H show activation of downstream targets of Ascl1 iniCas9-VP64-treated murine embryonic fibroblasts. Mouse embryonicfibroblasts (MEFs) were transfected with a control GFP expressionplasmid or the iCas9-VP64 expression plasmid and a combination of fourgRNA expression plasmids targeting ASCL1 at a ratio of 50:50 or 75:25.FIG. 8A shows gRNA target sites in the human ASCL1 promoter (SEQ ID NO:3) are conserved in the mouse ASCL1 promoter (SEQ ID NO: 4). Targetsites are indicated by solid lines and the transcribed region isindicated by dashed line. FIG. 8B shows ASCL1 expression in MEFsincreased at two days after iCas9-VP64/gRNA treatment as determined byqRT-PCR. FIGS. 8C-8H show that after 10 days in neural induction media,cells were stained for Ascl1 and Tuj 1, an early marker of neuronaldifferentiation (FIGS. 8C-8D), or for Tuj 1 and MAP2, a marker of moremature neuronal differentiation (FIGS. 8E-8F). FIGS. 8F-8G show thatsome Tuj1-positive cells adopted neuronal morphologies. FIG. 8G showsthat a single cell was found to be positive for Tuj 1 and MAP2. FIG. 8Hshows Tuj1-positive cells were readily identified in theiCas9-VP64/gRNA-treated cultures (˜0.05%) but were absent in controls.n=3 independent samples and data are represented as mean±standard errorof the mean. gRNA 75/25 is significantly different than gRNA 50/50 andcontrol (*P<0.01, Tukey's test).

FIG. 9A shows the iCas9-VP64 protein sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1) and FIG. 9Bshows the sequence of the gRNA expression cassette with U6 promoter (SEQID NO: 2).

FIGS. 10A-10B show the standard curves for qRT-PCR. For each gene, theexperimental sample with the highest expression level was diluted tocreate a standard curve that was assayed by qRT-PCR to ensure efficientamplification over an appropriate dynamic range. The efficiencies of allamplification reactions were within 90-115%.

FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B show the validation of RNA-guided repair. FIG. 11Ashows the Surveyor assay results of genomic DNA harvested from HEK 293Tcells two days after Cas9 was co-transfected into the cells with emptyvector (negative control) or gRNA. FIG. 11B shows the location of thegRNA target. FIG. 11C shows the expected cleavage sizes for each gRNA.

FIG. 12 shows RNA-guided repair in DMD 8036 (de148-50) cells as shown bySurveyor assay.

FIG. 13 shows RNA-guided repair in DMD 8036 (de148-50) cells as shown byPCR across the entire locus. The PCR of a wild-type dystrophin genegenerates a fragment of 1447 bp in size, whereas PCR of the mutant genein the DMD 8036 cell line shows a deletion of approximately 817 bp. Thedeletion band after introduction of the CRISPR/Cas9-based system wasapproximately 630 bp.

FIG. 14 shows RNA-guided repair in DMD 8036 (de148-50) cells as shown byWestern blot with MANDYS8 (anti-dystrophin antibody) and GAPDH antibody(positive control).

FIG. 15 shows ChIP sequencing data illustrating the specific binding ofiCas9-VP64 targeting the IL1RN promoter. HEK 293T cells were transfectedwith iCas9-VP64 targeting the IL1RN promoter.

FIGS. 16A-16D show CRISPR/Cas9 targeting of the dystrophin gene. FIG.16A shows sgRNA sequences were designed to bind sequences in the exon45-55 mutational hotspot region of the dystrophin gene, such that geneediting could restore dystrophin expression from a wide variety ofpatient-specific mutations. Arrows within introns indicate sgRNA targetsdesigned to delete entire exons from the genome. Arrows within exonsindicate sgRNA targets designed to create targeted frameshifts in thedystrophin gene. FIG. 16B shows an example of frame correction followingintroduction of small insertions or deletions by NHEJ DNA repair in exon51 using the CR3 sgRNA. FIG. 16B discloses SEQ ID NOS: 633-636,respectively, in order of appearance. FIG. 16C shows a schematic ofmultiplex sgRNA targets designed to delete exon 51 and restore thedystrophin reading frame in a patient mutation with the deletion ofexons 48-50. FIG. 16D shows a schematic of multiplex sgRNA targetsdesigned to delete the entire exon 45-55 region to address a variety ofDMD patient mutations.

FIG. 17 shows images of TBE-PAGE gels used to quantify Surveyor assayresults to measure day 3 gene modification in Table 7. Asterisks markexpected sizes of bands indicative of nuclease activity.

FIG. 18 shows images of TBE-PAGE gels used to quantify Surveyor assayresults to measure day 10 gene modification in Table 7. Asterisks markexpected sizes of bands indicative of nuclease activity.

FIGS. 19A-19D show fluorescence-activated flow sorting to enrichgenetically modified DMD myoblasts. FIG. 19A shows a plasmid expressinga human-codon optimized SpCas9 protein linked to a GFP marker using aT2A ribosomal skipping peptide sequence was co-electroporated into humanDMD myoblasts with one or two plasmids carrying sgRNA expressioncassettes. FIG. 19B shows the indicated sgRNA expression cassettes wereindependently co-transfected into HEK293Ts with a separate plasmidexpressing SpCas9 with (bottom) or without (top) a GFP marker linked toSpCas9 by a T2A ribosomal skipping peptide sequence. Gene modificationfrequencies were assessed at 3 days post-transfection by the Surveyorassay. FIG. 19C shows DMD myoblasts with deletions of exons 48-50 in thedystrophin gene were treated with sgRNAs that correct the dystrophinreading frame in these patient cells. Gene modification was assessed at20 days post-electroporation in unsorted (bulk) or GFP+ sorted cells.FIG. 19D shows GFP expression in DMD myoblasts 3 days afterelectroporation with indicated expression plasmids. Transfectionefficiencies and sorted cell populations are indicated by the gatedregion.

FIGS. 20A-20D show targeted frameshifts to restore the dystrophinreading frame using CRISPR/Cas9. FIG. 20A shows the 5′ region of exon 51was targeted using a sgRNA (SEQ ID NO: 637), CR3, that binds immediatelyupstream of the first out-of-frame stop codon. PAM: protospacer-adjacentmotif. FIG. 20B shows the exon 51 locus was PCR amplified from HEK293Tcells treated with SpCas9 and CR3 expression cassettes. Sequences ofindividual clones were determined by Sanger sequencing. The top sequence(bolded, exon in red) is the native, unmodified sequence. The number ofclones for each sequence is indicated in parentheses. FIG. 20C showssummary of total gene editing efficiency and reading frame conversionsresulting from gene modification shown in FIG. 20B. FIG. 20D showswestern blot for dystrophin expression in human DMD myoblasts treatedwith SpCas9 and the CR3 sgRNA expression cassette (FIG. 19C) to createtargeted frameshifts to restore the dystrophin reading frame. Dystrophinexpression was probed using an antibody against the rod-domain of thedystrophin protein after 6 days of differentiation.

FIGS. 21A-21D show deletion of exon 51 from the human genome usingmultiplex CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. FIG. 21A shows end-point genomic PCRacross the exon 51 locus in human DMD myoblasts with a deletion of exons48-50. The top arrow indicates the expected position of full-length PCRamplicons and the two lower arrows indicate the expected position of PCRamplicons with deletions caused by the indicated sgRNA combinations.FIG. 21B shows PCR products from FIG. 21A were cloned and individualclones were sequenced to determine insertions and deletions present atthe targeted locus (SEQ ID NOS: 424, 638, 425-428, 639 and 429-431,respectively, in order of appearance). The top row shows the wild-typeunmodified sequence and the triangles indicate SpCas9 cleavage sites. Atthe right are representative chromatograms showing the sequences of theexpected deletion junctions (SEQ ID NOS: 640-642, respectively, in orderof appearance). FIG. 21C shows end-point RT-PCR analysis of dystrophinmRNA transcripts in CRISPR/Cas9-modified human 448-50 DMD myoblaststreated with the indicated sgRNAs. A representative chromatogram of theexpected deletion PCR product is shown at the right. Asterisk: bandresulting from hybridization of the deletion product strand to theunmodified strand. FIG. 21D shows rescue of dystrophin proteinexpression by CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing was assessed by western blotfor the dystrophin protein with GAPDH as a loading control. The arrowindicates the expected restored dystrophin protein band.

FIGS. 22A-22D show deletion of the entire exon 45-55 region in human DMDmyoblasts by multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. FIG. 22A showsend-point genomic PCR of genomic DNA to detect deletion of the regionbetween intron 44 and intron 55 after treating HEK293Ts or DMD myoblastswith the indicated sgRNAs. FIG. 22B shows individual clones of PCRproducts (SEQ ID NOS: 432, 643 and 433, respectively, in order ofappearance) of the expected size for the deletions from DMD myoblasts inFIG. 22A were analyzed by Sanger sequencing to determine the sequencesof genomic deletions present at the targeted locus. Below is arepresentative chromatograms showing the sequence of the expecteddeletion junctions (SEQ ID NO: 644). FIG. 22C shows end-point RT-PCRanalysis of dystrophin mRNA transcripts in CRISPR/Cas9-modified human448-50 DMD myoblasts treated with the indicated sgRNAs. A representativechromatogram of the expected deletion PCR product is shown at the right(SEQ ID NO: 645). FIG. 22D shows analysis of restored dystrophin proteinexpression by western blot following electroporation of DMD myoblastswith sgRNAs targeted to intron 44 and/or intron 55.

FIG. 23 shows verification of flow cytometry-based enrichment ofgene-modified DMD myoblasts used for in vivo cell transplantationexperiment. DMD myoblasts were treated with Cas9 with or without sgRNAexpression vectors for CR1 and CR5 and sorted for GFP+ cells by flowcytometry. Deletions at the exon 51 locus were detected by end-point PCRusing primers flanking the locus. Neg ctrl: DMD myoblasts treated withCas9 only and sorted for GFP+ cells.

FIG. 24 shows expression of restored human dystrophin in vivo followingtransplantation of CRISPR/Cas9-treated human DMD myoblasts intoimmunodeficient mice. Human 448-50 DMD myoblasts were treated withSpCas9, CR1, and CR5 to delete exon 51 and sorted for GFP expression asshown in FIG. 19. These sorted cells and untreated control cells wereinjected into the hind limbs of immunodeficient mice and assessed forhuman-specific protein expression in muscle fibers after 4 weekspost-transplantation. Cryosections were stained with anti-humanspectrin, which is expressed by both uncorrected and corrected myoblaststhat have fused into mouse myofibers, or anti-human dystrophinantibodies as indicated. White arrows indicate muscle fibers positivefor human dystrophin.

FIGS. 25A-25F show additional immunofluorescence images probing humandystrophin expression. Serial sections from regions stained withanti-human spectrin are shown inset in top left. FIGS. 25A-25C showsections from muscles injected with untreated human DMD myoblasts. FIGS.25D-25F show sections from muscles injected with CR1/5 treated human DMDmyoblasts enriched by flow cytometry. White arrows indicate dystrophinpositive fibers.

FIGS. 26A-26D show evaluation of CRISPR/Cas9 toxicity and off-targeteffects for CR1/CR5-mediated deletion of exon 51 in human cells. FIG.26A shows results of a cytotoxicity assay in HEK293T cells treated withhuman-optimized SpCas9 and the indicated sgRNA constructs. Cytotoxicityis based on survival of GFP-positive cells that are co-transfected withthe indicated nuclease. I-SceI is a well-characterized non-toxicmeganuclease and GZF3 is a known toxic zinc finger nuclease. FIG. 26Bshows surveyor analysis at off-target sites in sorted hDMD cells treatedwith expression cassettes encoding Cas9 the indicated sgRNAs. Thesethree off-target sites tested in hDMD cells were identified from a panelof 50 predicted sites tested in HEK293T cells (FIG. 27 and Table 4).TGT: on-target locus for indicated sgRNA. OT:off-target locus. FIGS.26C-26D show end-point nested PCR to detect chromosomal translocationsin HEK293T cells treated with Cas9 and CR1 (FIG. 26C) or sorted hDMDcells treated with Cas9, CR1, and CR5 (FIG. 26D). The schematic depictsthe relative location of nested primer pairs customized for eachtranslocation event. The expected size of each band was estimated basedon the primer size and the location of the predicted sgRNA cut site ateach locus. Asterisks indicate bands detected at the expected size. Theidentities of the bands in FIG. 26C were verified by Sanger sequencingfrom each end (FIG. 30). A representative chromatogram for the P2/P5translocation in HEK293T cells is shown (SEQ ID NO: 646).

FIG. 27 shows images of TBE-PAGE gels used to quantify Surveyor assayresults to measure on-target and off-target gene modification in Table4. Asterisks mark expected sizes of bands indicative of nucleaseactivity.

FIGS. 28A-28C show end-point nested PCR to detect chromosomaltranslocations caused by CRISPR/Cas9 off-target activity for CR3 andCR6/CR36 in human cells. Nested end-point PCR analysis was used todetect translocations in HEK293T or sorted hDMD cells treated with Cas9and CR3 as indicated (FIG. 28A), HEK293T cells treated with Cas9 andCR36 alone (FIG. 28B), or sorted hDMD cells treated with Cas9, CR6, andCR36 expression cassettes (FIG. 28C). The second nested PCR reaction fortranslocation was amplified using custom primers for each predictedtranslocation locus to maximize specificity (See Table 4). The schematicdepicts the relative location of nested primer pairs used to probe forthe presence of translocations. Each possible translocation event wasfirst amplified from genomic DNA isolated from cells treated with orwithout the indicated sgRNA(s). A second nested PCR reaction wasperformed using primers within the predicted PCR amplicons that wouldresult from translocations. Expected size was estimated based on theindicated primer binding site and the predicted sgRNA cut site at eachlocus. *indicates bands detected at the expected size and verified bySanger sequencing from each end. # indicates amplicons in which Sangersequencing showed sequences other than the predicted translocation,likely a result of mispriming during the nested PCR.

FIG. 29 shows Sanger sequencing chromatograms (SEQ ID NOS: 647-654,respectively, in order of appearance) for bands detected in FIGS.28A-28C resulting from translocations between CR3 and CR3-OT1, onchromosomes X and 1, respectively, in HEK293T cells treated with Cas9and CR3 gene cassettes. Arrows show regions of homology to the indicatedchromosome nearby the expected break points caused by the appropriatesgRNAs. Note that sequencing reads become out of phase near the breakpoint due to the error-prone nature of DNA repair by non-homologousend-joining.

FIG. 30 shows Sanger sequencing chromatograms (SEQ ID NOS: 655-660,respectively, in order of appearance) for bands detected in FIG. 26Cresulting from translocations between CR1 and CR1-OT1, on chromosomes Xand 16, respectively, in HEK293T cells treated with Cas9 and CR1 genecassettes. Arrows show regions of homology to the indicated chromosomenearby the expected break points caused by the appropriate sgRNAs. Notethat sequencing reads become out of phase near the break point due tothe error-prone nature of DNA repair by non-homologous end-joining.

FIG. 31 shows an overview of in vivo AAV injections and tissue harvest.

FIGS. 32A-32C show Surveyor analysis of Rosa26 ZFN activities inskeletal muscle in vitro and in vivo following delivery ofAAV-SASTG-ROSA. Arrows indicate expected bands resulting from Surveyorcleavage. n.d.: not detected. FIG. 32A shows proliferating C2C12s weretransduced with the indicated amount of virus and harvested at 4 dayspost-infection. Arrows indicate expected bands sizes resulting fromSurveyor cleavage. FIG. 32B shows C2C12s were incubated indifferentiation medium for 5 days and then transduced with the indicatedamount of AAV-SASTG-ROSA virus in 24 well plates. Samples were collectedat 10 days post-transduction. FIG. 32C shows the indicated amount ofAAV-SASTG-ROSA was injected directly into the tibialis anterior ofC57BL/6J mice and muscles were harvested 4 weeks post-infection. Theharvested TA muscles were partitioned into 8 separate pieces for genomicDNA analysis, each shown in a separate lane.

FIG. 33 shows Rosa T2A opt DNA sequence (SEQ ID NO: 434) and Rosa T2Aopt protein sequence (SEQ ID NO: 435).

FIGS. 34A and 34B show SASTG capsid DNA sequence (SEQ ID NO:436) andSASTG capsid peptide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 437).

FIG. 35 shows DZF16 ZFN target site sequence (SEQ ID NO: 442), DZF16-L6left full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 443) and DZF16-R6 right fullamino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 444).

FIG. 36 shows E51C3 ZFN target site sequence (SEQ ID NO: 445), E51C3-3Lleft full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 446) and E51C3-3R right fullamino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 447).

FIG. 37 shows DZF15 ZFN target site sequence (SEQ ID NO: 448), DZF15-L6left full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 449), DZF15-R6 right fullamino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 450), DZF15-L5 left full amino acidsequence (SEQ ID NO: 451), DZF15-R5 right full amino acid sequence (SEQID NO: 452).

FIG. 38 shows E51C4 ZFN target site sequence (SEQ ID NO: 453), E51C4-4Lleft full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 454) and E51C4-4R right fullamino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 455).

FIG. 39 shows schematic diagrams of a “Single vector, multiplex CRISPRsystem,” Dual vector, multiplex CRISPR system,” and “Single vector,single gRNA system.”

FIG. 40 shows the nucleotide sequences of SaCas9-NLS (with the NLSunderlined) (SEQ ID NO: 459) and SaCas9 gRNA (SEQ ID NO: 460).

FIG. 41 shows the nucleotide sequences of NmCas9 (with the NLS 1underlined, the NLS 2 underlined and bolded, and the HA tag bolded; SEQID NO: 461), NmCas9 short hairpin from Thomson PNAS 2013 (SEQ ID NO:462), and NmCas9 long hairpin from Church Nature Biotech 2013 (SEQ IDNO: 463).

FIGS. 42A-42C show validation of sgRNA and lentiviral Cas9 expressionconstructs. FIG. 42A shows constructs encoding unique Pol III promotersexpressing sgRNAs targeting the AAVS1 locus or a construct containingthe hU6 promoter immediately followed by poly-thymidine to terminateexpression (“PolyT”) were transfected into HEK293T cells. End-pointRT-PCR was used to probe for expression of each indicated promoter/sgRNAconstruct two days post-transfection. RT: no reverse transcriptasecontrol. FIG. 42B shows HEK293Ts were transfected with expressionvectors encoding the AAVS1 zinc-finger nuclease or Cas9-T2A-GFP and theindicated promoter/sgRNA expression cassettes and assessed for genemodification levels 3 days post-transfection using the Surveyor assay.FIG. 42C shows HEK293T cells were transduced with lentiviral constructsencoding the indicated Cas9-T2A-GFP constructs without sgRNAs andassessed for Cas9 expression by western blot 7 days post-transduction byprobing for a FLAG epitope tag on the N-terminus of the Cas9 protein.

FIG. 43 shows Golden Gate assembly of single lentiviral CRISPR/Cas9expression cassettes. FIG. 43 discloses SEQ ID NOS: 661-672,respectively, in order of appearance.

FIGS. 44A-44B show single lentiviral delivery of a multiplex CRISPR/Cas9system. FIG. 44A shows four sgRNAs targeting distinct genomic loci werecloned into a lentiviral vector expressing the active Cas9 nuclease.FIG. 44B shows HEK293Ts and primary human dermal fibroblasts weretransduced with lentivirus expressing the indicated sgRNAs and assayedfor cleavage events using the Surveyor assay. HEK293Ts were assayed 7days post transduction. The human fibroblasts were assayed 10 days posttransduction.

FIGS. 45A-45D show transient gene activation in HEK293Ts stablyexpressing dCas9-VP64. HEK293Ts were transduced with lentivirus tostably express dCas9-VP64 and were subsequently transfected with plasmidexpressing the indicated sgRNA combinations. By varying the number ofsgRNAs delivered, tunable endogenous gene activation of the endogenousIL1RN (FIG. 45A) and HBG1 (FIG. 45B) loci was achieved 3 days posttransfection. Peak levels of endogenous IL1RN (FIG. 45C) and HBG1 (FIG.45D) were observed 3-6 days post transfection and the level ofactivation returned to background levels between days 15-20.Importantly, the cell lines were able to reactive following a secondtransfection on day 20 albeit at a lower level than previously observed.

FIGS. 46A-46D show stable gene activation in HEK293Ts using a singlelentiviral multiplex dCas9-VP64 vector. HEK293Ts were transduced withlentivirus to stably express dCas9-VP64 and the indicated combinationsof gRNAs. By varying the number of sgRNAs delivered, tunable endogenousgene activation of the endogenous IL1RN (FIG. 46A) and HBG1 (FIG. 46B)loci was achieved 7 days post transduction. Peak levels of endogenousIL1RN (FIG. 46C) and HBG1 (FIG. 46D) were observed 6 days posttransduction and the level of activation was sustained out to day 21.

FIG. 47 shows IL1RN mRNA expression levels.

FIG. 48 shows a schematic representing the direct conversion offibroblasts to neurons through ectopic expression of the BAM neuronaltranscription factors.

FIG. 49A shows a schematic of the dCas9-VP64 construct. dCas9-VP64 is acatalytically inactive form of the Cas9 protein fused to a tetramer ofthe VP16 transcriptional activation domain. FIG. 49B is a schematicshowing the mechanism of RNA-guided recruitment of dCas9-VP64 to agenomic target. FIG. 49C is a schematic of the experimental protocol togenerate iNs with CRISPR/Cas9 transcription factors.

FIGS. 50A-50B shows endogenous ASCU expression at day 3 determined byqRT-PCR (FIG. 50A) or total ASCU protein detected by immunofluorescencein MEFs transduced with dCas9-VP64 and transfected with either gRNAstargeted to the ASCU promoter, ASCU cDNA, or luciferase (FIG. 50B).Asterisk (*) indicates significant (p<0.05) increase in ASCL1 expressionwith the co-delivery of 8 gRNAs compared to 4 gRNAs. Ectopic expressionof ASCU produced more protein than induced by dCas9-VP64 and 8 gRNAstargeted to the Ascl1 promoter, but did not activate the endogenouslocus by day 3 in culture.

FIG. 51A shows TUB and MAP2-postive cells generated by ectopic BAMfactors or by dCas9-VP64 and gRNAs targeted to the BRN2 and ASCUpromoters. FIG. 51B shows cells with neuronal morphology expressing ahSyn-RFP reporter at day 11 in N3 medium.

FIG. 52A shows a cell with neuronal morphology positive for the GCaMPScalcium indicator in the presence (bottom) or absence (top) of KC1 inthe culture medium. FIG. 52B shows a trace of normalized fluorescentintensity over time showing depolarization of the cell in response toKC1 addition.

FIGS. 52A-52B show activation of downstream targets of Ascl1 and Brn2,i.e., master regulatory genes, in iCas9-VP64-treated murine embryonicfibroblasts using dCas9-VP64 transcription factors to convert thefibroblasts to neurons. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) weretransfected with a control GFP expression plasmid or the iCas9-VP64expression plasmid and a combination of eight gRNA expression plasmidstargeting ASCL1 and BRN2. The dCas9 transcription factors were deliveredvirally. After 10 days in neural induction media, cells were stained forTuj 1, an early marker of neuronal differentiation and MAP2, a marker ofmore mature neuronal differentiation. The conversion to neurons wasefficient.

FIGS. 53A-53C show the CRISPR/Cas9 platform for control of mammaliangene regulation. FIG. 53A shows Cas9-based effectors bind genomicsequences in the presence of a chimeric gRNA molecule consisting of aconstant region that complexes with Cas9 preceded by an exchangeable 20bp protospacer that confers target site specificity. FIG. 53A disclosesSEQ ID NO: 673. FIG. 53B shows Cas9-based synthetic transcriptionfactors repress transcription of a target gene by interfering with RNApolymerase activity or by binding within the promoter and blocking thebinding sites of endogenous transcription factors. FIG. 53C showstargeting regulatory elements such as enhancers could also potentiallyblock the expression of multiple distal genes.

FIG. 54 shows targeting the HS2 enhancer using CRISPR/dCas9-KRAB. TheHS2 region is a potent enhancer that distally regulates the expressionof globin genes >10kb downstream. A panel of single gRNAs was designedto target sites along the enhancer region.

FIGS. 55A-55E that single gRNAs targeting the HS2 enhancer effect potenttranscriptional repression of globin genes. FIG. 55A shows dCas9 anddCas9-KRAB repressors were delivered on a lentiviral vector. SinglegRNAs were transiently transfected for screening. When assayed byquantitative RT-PCR at 3 days post-transfection, K562s expressingdCas9-KRAB achieve up to 80% repression of γ-globin (FIG. 55B), ε-globin(FIG. 55C), and β-globin (FIG. 55D) genes, as compared to control cellsthat received no gRNA treatment. FIG. 55E shows protein expression incells expressing dCas9 or dCas9-KRAB and treated with Cr4 or Cr8 showmild repression of γ-globin expression at day 3, compared to β-actincontrols.

FIGS. 56A-56C expression of globin locus genes with varying doses ofgRNA plasmid delivered to cells treated with no lentivirus (FIG. 56A),dCas9 lentivirus (FIG. 56B), or dCas9-KRAB lentivirus (FIG. 56C).Increasing the dose of Cr4 gRNA plasmid delivered enhanced repression indCas9-KRAB treated cells, indicating that both the dCas9-KRAB effectorand targeted gRNA play a role in achieving repression.

FIGS. 57A-57D show that stably delivering single gRNAs with dCas9-KRABsilences expression of the globin genes. FIG. 57A shows dCas9 anddCas9-KRAB repressors were co-expressed on a lentiviral vector withsingle gRNAs. When assayed by quantitative RT-PCR at 7 dayspost-transduction, K562s expressing dCas9-KRAB achieve up to 95%repression of γ-globin (FIG. 57B), ε-globin (FIG. 57C), and β-globingenes (FIG. 57D), as compared to control cells that received nolentiviral treatment.

FIG. 58 shows that isolating the p300 HAT “Core” for targeted epigeneticmodification of histones only via dCas9 fusion.

FIG. 59 shows a simplified schematic of S. pyogenes dCas9-VP64 fusion(top) and dCas9-p300 core fusion (bottom). The Protospacer AdjacentMotifs (PAM) are shown with arrows at target gene loci and syntheticguide RNA (gRNA) is shown with hatched arrows.

FIGS. 60A-60C show representative data at three human loci demonstratingthe efficacy of activation using dCas9-p300 in relation to dCas9-VP64and dCas9 without any fused effector domain in the human 293T cellculture line.

FIGS. 61A-61C show the amino acid sequences of the dCas9 constructs. Thelegend for all FIGS. 61A-61C is shown in FIG. 61A. FIGS. 61A-61Cdisclose SEQ ID NOS: 674-676, respectively, in order of appearance.

FIG. 62 shows that HAT-dCase9-p300 fusion proteins fail to activate geneexpression.

FIGS. 63A-63B show that gRNA's also act synergistically with dCas9-p300Core.

FIGS. 64A-64C show TALEN mediated integration of minidystrophin at the5′UTR of the Dp427m skeletal muscle isoform of dystrophin in skeletalmyoblast cell lines derived from human DMD patients carrying differentdeletions in the dystrophin gene. DMD patient cells were electroporatedwith constructs encoding a TALEN pair active at the 5′UTR locus and adonor template carrying the minidystrophin gene. FIG. 64A is a schematicshowing how minidystrophin is integrated into the 5′UTR. FIG. 64B showshygromycin-resistant clonal cell lines were isolated and screened by PCRfor successful site-specific integrations at the 5′UTR using the primersshown in FIG. 64A. Asterisks indicate clones selected for furtheranalysis in FIG. 64C. FIG. 64C shows clonally isolated DMD myoblastswith detected integration events were differentiated for 6 days andassessed for expression of an HA tag fused to the C terminus ofminidystrophin.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As described herein, certain methods and engineeredCRISPR/CRISPR-associated (Cas) 9-based system compositions have beendiscovered to be useful for altering the expression of genes, genomeengineering, and correcting or reducing the effects of mutations ingenes involved in genetic diseases. The CRISPR/Cas9-based systeminvolves a Cas9 protein and at least one guide RNA, which provide theDNA targeting specificity for the system. In particular, the presentdisclosure describes a Cas9 fusion protein that combines the DNAsequence targeting function of the CRISPR/Cas9-based system with anadditional activity, thus allowing changes in gene expression and/orepigenetic status. The system may also be used in genome engineering andcorrecting or reducing the effects of gene mutations.

The present disclosure also provides certain compositions and methodsfor delivering CRISPR/CRISPR-associated (Cas) 9-based system andmultiple gRNAs to target one or more endogenous genes. Co-transfectionof multiple sgRNAs targeted to a single promoter allow for synergisticactivation, however, co-transfection of multiple plasmids leads tovariable expression levels in each cell due to differences in copynumber. Additionally, gene activation following transfection istransient due to dilution of plasmid DNA over time. Moreover, many celltypes are not easily transfected and transient gene expression may notbe sufficient for inducing a therapeutic effect. To address theselimitations, a single lentiviral system was developed to express Cas9and up to four sgRNAs from independent promoters. A platform isdisclosed that expresses Cas9 or dCas9 fusion proteins and up to fourgRNAs from a single lentiviral vector. The lentiviral vector expresses aconstitutive or inducible Cas9 or dCas9-VP64 in addition to one, two,three, or four gRNAs expressed from independent promoters. This systemenables control of both the magnitude and timing of CRISPR/Cas9-basedgene regulation. Furthermore, the lentiviral platform provides thepotent and sustained levels of gene expression that will facilitatetherapeutic applications of the CRISPR/Cas9 system in primary cells.Finally, this system may be used for editing multiple genessimultaneously, such as the concurrent knockout of several oncogenes.

The present disclosure also provides certain compositions and methodsfor delivering site-specific nucleases to skeletal muscle and cardiacmuscle using modified adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors. Thesite-specific nucleases, which may be engineered, are useful foraltering the expression of genes, genome engineering, correcting orreducing the effects of mutations in genes involved in genetic diseases,or manipulating genes involved in other conditions affecting skeletalmuscle or cardiac muscle or muscle regeneration. The engineeredsite-specific nucleases may include a zinc finger nuclease (ZFN), a TALeffector nuclease (TALEN), and/or a CRISPR/Cas9 system for genomeediting. As described herein, genes in skeletal muscle tissue weresuccessfully edited in vivo using this unique delivery system. Thedisclosed invention provides a means to rewrite the human genome fortherapeutic applications and target model species for basic scienceapplications.

Gene editing is highly dependent on cell cycle and complex DNA repairpathways that vary from tissue to tissue. Skeletal muscle is a verycomplex environment, consisting of large myofibers with more than 100nuclei per cell. Gene therapy and biologics in general have been limitedfor decades by in vivo delivery hurdles. These challenges includestability of the carrier in vivo, targeting the right tissue, gettingsufficient gene expression and active gene product, and avoidingtoxicity that might overcome activity, which is common with gene editingtools. Other delivery vehicles, such as direct injection of plasmid DNA,work to express genes in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle in othercontexts, but do not work well with these site-specific nucleases forachieving detectable levels of genome editing.

While many gene sequences are unstable in AAV vectors and thereforeundeliverable, these site-specific nucleases are surprisingly stable inthe AAV vectors. When these site-specific nucleases are delivered andexpressed, they remained active in the skeletal muscle tissue. Theprotein stability and activity of the site-specific nucleases are highlytissue type- and cell type-dependent. These active and stable nucleasesare able to modify gene sequences in the complex environment of skeletalmuscle. The current invention describes a way to deliver active forms ofthis class of therapeutics to skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle that iseffective, efficient and facilitates successful genome modification.

The present disclosure also provides certain fusion epigenetic effectormolecules, a dCas9-p300 fusion protein, which provides a robust andpotentially more widely applicable tool for synthetic transcriptionalmodulation compared to the dCas9-VP64 fusion. The activated target genesto a substantially greater extent than the dCas9-VP64 fusion protein atall loci tested. In addition, the p300 has intrinsic endogenous activityat enhancers within the human genome. The dCas9-p300 fusion protein maybe able to activate endogenous target gene promoters and enhancerregions.

The dCas9-p300 fusion protein can be used in human tissue culture celllines to activate gene expression. This fusion protein may be used todirect the epigenetic state of target loci within human cells withprecision and predictability in order to control differentiation,modulate cellular regulation, and apply innovative potential therapies.Current technologies are limited in the strength of activation and theextent and sustainability of epigenetic modulation; obstacles which maybe obviated via utilization of this new fusion protein.

Section headings as used in this section and the entire disclosureherein are merely for organizational purposes and are not intended to belimiting.

1. DEFINITIONS

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art. In case of conflict, the present document, includingdefinitions, will control. Preferred methods and materials are describedbelow, although methods and materials similar or equivalent to thosedescribed herein can be used in practice or testing of the presentinvention. All publications, patent applications, patents and otherreferences mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in theirentirety. The materials, methods, and examples disclosed herein areillustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

The terms “comprise(s),” “include(s),” “having,” “has,” “can,”“contain(s),” and variants thereof, as used herein, are intended to beopen-ended transitional phrases, terms, or words that do not precludethe possibility of additional acts or structures. The singular forms“a,” “and” and “the” include plural references unless the contextclearly dictates otherwise. The present disclosure also contemplatesother embodiments “comprising,” “consisting of” and “consistingessentially of,” the embodiments or elements presented herein, whetherexplicitly set forth or not.

For the recitation of numeric ranges herein, each intervening numberthere between with the same degree of precision is explicitlycontemplated. For example, for the range of 6-9, the numbers 7 and 8 arecontemplated in addition to 6 and 9, and for the range 6.0-7.0, thenumber 6.0, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, and 7.0 areexplicitly contemplated.

“Adeno-associated virus” or “AAV” as used interchangeably herein refersto a small virus belonging to the genus Dependovirus of the Parvoviridaefamily that infects humans and some other primate species. AAV is notcurrently known to cause disease and consequently the virus causes avery mild immune response.

“Binding region” as used herein refers to the region within a nucleasetarget region that is recognized and bound by the nuclease.

“Cardiac muscle” or “heart muscle” as used interchangeably herein meansa type of involuntary striated muscle found in the walls andhistological foundation of the heart, the myocardium. Cardiac muscle ismade of cardiomyocytes or myocardiocytes. Myocardiocytes show striationssimilar to those on skeletal muscle cells but contain only one, uniquenucleus, unlike the multinucleated skeletal cells.

“Cardiac muscle condition” as used herein refers to a condition relatedto the cardiac muscle, such as cardiomyopathy, heart failure,arrhythmia, and inflammatory heart disease.

“Coding sequence” or “encoding nucleic acid” as used herein means thenucleic acids (RNA or DNA molecule) that comprise a nucleotide sequencewhich encodes a protein. The coding sequence can further includeinitiation and termination signals operably linked to regulatoryelements including a promoter and polyadenylation signal capable ofdirecting expression in the cells of an individual or mammal to whichthe nucleic acid is administered. The coding sequence may be codonoptimize.

“Complement” or “complementary” as used herein means a nucleic acid canmean Watson-Crick (e.g., A-T/U and C-G) or Hoogsteen base pairingbetween nucleotides or nucleotide analogs of nucleic acid molecules.“Complementarity” refers to a property shared between two nucleic acidsequences, such that when they are aligned antiparallel to each other,the nucleotide bases at each position will be complementary.

“Correcting”, “genome editing” and “restoring” as used herein refers tochanging a mutant gene that encodes a truncated protein or no protein atall, such that a full-length functional or partially full-lengthfunctional protein expression is obtained. Correcting or restoring amutant gene may include replacing the region of the gene that has themutation or replacing the entire mutant gene with a copy of the genethat does not have the mutation with a repair mechanism such ashomology-directed repair (HDR). Correcting or restoring a mutant genemay also include repairing a frameshift mutation that causes a prematurestop codon, an aberrant splice acceptor site or an aberrant splice donorsite, by generating a double stranded break in the gene that is thenrepaired using non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). NHEJ may add or deleteat least one base pair during repair which may restore the properreading frame and eliminate the premature stop codon. Correcting orrestoring a mutant gene may also include disrupting an aberrant spliceacceptor site or splice donor sequence. Correcting or restoring a mutantgene may also include deleting a non-essential gene segment by thesimultaneous action of two nucleases on the same DNA strand in order torestore the proper reading frame by removing the DNA between the twonuclease target sites and repairing the DNA break by NHEJ.

“Donor DNA”, “donor template” and “repair template” as usedinterchangeably herein refers to a double-stranded DNA fragment ormolecule that includes at least a portion of the gene of interest. Thedonor DNA may encode a full-functional protein or a partially-functionalprotein.

“Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy” or “DMD” as used interchangeably hereinrefers to a recessive, fatal, X-linked disorder that results in muscledegeneration and eventual death. DMD is a common hereditary monogenicdisease and occurs in 1 in 3500 males. DMD is the result of inherited orspontaneous mutations that cause nonsense or frame shift mutations inthe dystrophin gene. The majority of dystrophin mutations that cause DMDare deletions of exons that disrupt the reading frame and causepremature translation termination in the dystrophin gene. DMD patientstypically lose the ability to physically support themselves duringchildhood, become progressively weaker during the teenage years, and diein their twenties.

“Dystrophin” as used herein refers to a rod-shaped cytoplasmic proteinwhich is a part of a protein complex that connects the cytoskeleton of amuscle fiber to the surrounding extracellular matrix through the cellmembrane. Dystrophin provides structural stability to the dystroglycancomplex of the cell membrane that is responsible for regulating musclecell integrity and function. The dystrophin gene or “DMD gene” as usedinterchangeably herein is 2.2 megabases at locus Xp21. The primarytranscription measures about 2,400 kb with the mature mRNA being about14 kb. 79 exons code for the protein which is over 3500 amino acids.

“Exon 51” as used herein refers to the 51^(st) exon of the dystrophingene. Exon 51 is frequently adjacent to frame-disrupting deletions inDMD patients and has been targeted in clinical trials foroligonucleotide-based exon skipping. A clinical trial for the exon 51skipping compound eteplirsen recently reported a significant functionalbenefit across 48 weeks, with an average of 47% dystrophin positivefibers compared to baseline. Mutations in exon 51 are ideally suited forpermanent correction by NHEJ-based genome editing.

“Frameshift” or “frameshift mutation” as used interchangeably hereinrefers to a type of gene mutation wherein the addition or deletion ofone or more nucleotides causes a shift in the reading frame of thecodons in the mRNA. The shift in reading frame may lead to thealteration in the amino acid sequence at protein translation, such as amissense mutation or a premature stop codon.

“Functional” and “full-functional” as used herein describes protein thathas biological activity. A “functional gene” refers to a genetranscribed to mRNA, which is translated to a functional protein.

“Fusion protein” as used herein refers to a chimeric protein createdthrough the joining of two or more genes that originally coded forseparate proteins. The translation of the fusion gene results in asingle polypeptide with functional properties derived from each of theoriginal proteins.

“Genetic construct” as used herein refers to the DNA or RNA moleculesthat comprise a nucleotide sequence that encodes a protein. The codingsequence includes initiation and termination signals operably linked toregulatory elements including a promoter and polyadenylation signalcapable of directing expression in the cells of the individual to whomthe nucleic acid molecule is administered. As used herein, the term“expressible form” refers to gene constructs that contain the necessaryregulatory elements operable linked to a coding sequence that encodes aprotein such that when present in the cell of the individual, the codingsequence will be expressed.

“Genetic disease” as used herein refers to a disease, partially orcompletely, directly or indirectly, caused by one or more abnormalitiesin the genome, especially a condition that is present from birth. Theabnormality may be a mutation, an insertion or a deletion. Theabnormality may affect the coding sequence of the gene or its regulatorysequence. The genetic disease may be, but not limited to DMD,hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, Huntington's chorea, familialhypercholesterolemia (LDL receptor defect), hepatoblastoma, Wilson'sdisease, congenital hepatic porphyria, inherited disorders of hepaticmetabolism, Lesch Nyhan syndrome, sickle cell anemia, thalassaemias,xeroderma pigmentosum, Fanconi's anemia, retinitis pigmentosa, ataxiatelangiectasia, Bloom's syndrome, retinoblastoma, and Tay-Sachs disease.

“Homology-directed repair” or “HDR” as used interchangeably hereinrefers to a mechanism in cells to repair double strand DNA lesions whena homologous piece of DNA is present in the nucleus, mostly in G2 and Sphase of the cell cycle. HDR uses a donor DNA template to guide repairand may be used to create specific sequence changes to the genome,including the targeted addition of whole genes. If a donor template isprovided along with the site specific nuclease, such as with aCRISPR/Cas9-based systems, then the cellular machinery will repair thebreak by homologous recombination, which is enhanced several orders ofmagnitude in the presence of DNA cleavage. When the homologous DNA pieceis absent, non-homologous end joining may take place instead.

“Genome editing” as used herein refers to changing a gene. Genomeediting may include correcting or restoring a mutant gene. Genomeediting may include knocking out a gene, such as a mutant gene or anormal gene. Genome editing may be used to treat disease or enhancemuscle repair by changing the gene of interest.

“Identical” or “identity” as used herein in the context of two or morenucleic acids or polypeptide sequences means that the sequences have aspecified percentage of residues that are the same over a specifiedregion. The percentage may be calculated by optimally aligning the twosequences, comparing the two sequences over the specified region,determining the number of positions at which the identical residueoccurs in both sequences to yield the number of matched positions,dividing the number of matched positions by the total number ofpositions in the specified region, and multiplying the result by 100 toyield the percentage of sequence identity. In cases where the twosequences are of different lengths or the alignment produces one or morestaggered ends and the specified region of comparison includes only asingle sequence, the residues of single sequence are included in thedenominator but not the numerator of the calculation. When comparing DNAand RNA, thymine (T) and uracil (U) may be considered equivalent.Identity may be performed manually or by using a computer sequencealgorithm such as BLAST or BLAST 2.0.

“Mutant gene” or “mutated gene” as used interchangeably herein refers toa gene that has undergone a detectable mutation. A mutant gene hasundergone a change, such as the loss, gain, or exchange of geneticmaterial, which affects the normal transmission and expression of thegene. A “disrupted gene” as used herein refers to a mutant gene that hasa mutation that causes a premature stop codon. The disrupted geneproduct is truncated relative to a full-length undisrupted gene product.

“Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) pathway” as used herein refers to apathway that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA by directly ligatingthe break ends without the need for a homologous template. Thetemplate-independent re-ligation of DNA ends by NHEJ is a stochastic,error-prone repair process that introduces random micro-insertions andmicro-deletions (indels) at the DNA breakpoint. This method may be usedto intentionally disrupt, delete, or alter the reading frame of targetedgene sequences. NHEJ typically uses short homologous DNA sequencescalled microhomologies to guide repair. These microhomologies are oftenpresent in single-stranded overhangs on the end of double-strand breaks.When the overhangs are perfectly compatible, NHEJ usually repairs thebreak accurately, yet imprecise repair leading to loss of nucleotidesmay also occur, but is much more common when the overhangs are notcompatible.

“Normal gene” as used herein refers to a gene that has not undergone achange, such as a loss, gain, or exchange of genetic material. Thenormal gene undergoes normal gene transmission and gene expression.

“Nuclease mediated NHEJ” as used herein refers to NHEJ that is initiatedafter a nuclease, such as a cas9, cuts double stranded DNA.

“Nucleic acid” or “oligonucleotide” or “polynucleotide” as used hereinmeans at least two nucleotides covalently linked together. The depictionof a single strand also defines the sequence of the complementarystrand. Thus, a nucleic acid also encompasses the complementary strandof a depicted single strand. Many variants of a nucleic acid may be usedfor the same purpose as a given nucleic acid. Thus, a nucleic acid alsoencompasses substantially identical nucleic acids and complementsthereof. A single strand provides a probe that may hybridize to a targetsequence under stringent hybridization conditions. Thus, a nucleic acidalso encompasses a probe that hybridizes under stringent hybridizationconditions.

Nucleic acids may be single stranded or double stranded, or may containportions of both double stranded and single stranded sequence. Thenucleic acid may be DNA, both genomic and cDNA, RNA, or a hybrid, wherethe nucleic acid may contain combinations of deoxyribo- andribo-nucleotides, and combinations of bases including uracil, adenine,thymine, cytosine, guanine, inosine, xanthine hypoxanthine, isocytosineand isoguanine. Nucleic acids may be obtained by chemical synthesismethods or by recombinant methods.

“Operably linked” as used herein means that expression of a gene isunder the control of a promoter with which it is spatially connected. Apromoter may be positioned 5′ (upstream) or 3′ (downstream) of a geneunder its control. The distance between the promoter and a gene may beapproximately the same as the distance between that promoter and thegene it controls in the gene from which the promoter is derived. As isknown in the art, variation in this distance may be accommodated withoutloss of promoter function.

“Partially-functional” as used herein describes a protein that isencoded by a mutant gene and has less biological activity than afunctional protein but more than a non-functional protein.

“Premature stop codon” or “out-of-frame stop codon” as usedinterchangeably herein refers to nonsense mutation in a sequence of DNA,which results in a stop codon at location not normally found in thewild-type gene. A premature stop codon may cause a protein to betruncated or shorter compared to the full-length version of the protein.

“Promoter” as used herein means a synthetic or naturally-derivedmolecule which is capable of conferring, activating or enhancingexpression of a nucleic acid in a cell. A promoter may comprise one ormore specific transcriptional regulatory sequences to further enhanceexpression and/or to alter the spatial expression and/or temporalexpression of same. A promoter may also comprise distal enhancer orrepressor elements, which may be located as much as several thousandbase pairs from the start site of transcription. A promoter may bederived from sources including viral, bacterial, fungal, plants,insects, and animals. A promoter may regulate the expression of a genecomponent constitutively, or differentially with respect to cell, thetissue or organ in which expression occurs or, with respect to thedevelopmental stage at which expression occurs, or in response toexternal stimuli such as physiological stresses, pathogens, metal ions,or inducing agents. Representative examples of promoters include thebacteriophage T7 promoter, bacteriophage T3 promoter, SP6 promoter, lacoperator-promoter, tac promoter, SV40 late promoter, SV40 earlypromoter, RSV-LTR promoter, CMV IE promoter, SV40 early promoter or SV40late promoter and the CMV IE promoter.

“Repeat variable diresidue” or “RVD” as used interchangeably hereinrefers to a pair of adjacent amino acid residues within a DNArecognition motif (also known as “RVD module”), which includes 33-35amino acids, of a TALE DNA-binding domain. The RVD determines thenucleotide specificity of the RVD module. RVD modules may be combined toproduce an RVD array. The “RVD array length” as used herein refers tothe number of RVD modules that corresponds to the length of thenucleotide sequence within the TALEN target region that is recognized bya TALEN, i.e., the binding region.

“Site-specific nuclease” as used herein refers to an enzyme capable ofspecifically recognizing and cleaving DNA sequences. The site-specificnuclease may be engineered. Examples of engineered site-specificnucleases include zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), TAL effector nucleases(TALENs), and CRISPR/Cas9-based systems.

“Skeletal muscle” as used herein refers to a type of striated muscle,which is under the control of the somatic nervous system and attached tobones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons. Skeletal muscle ismade up of individual components known as myocytes, or “muscle cells”,sometimes colloquially called “muscle fibers.” Myocytes are formed fromthe fusion of developmental myoblasts (a type of embryonic progenitorcell that gives rise to a muscle cell) in a process known as myogenesis.These long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells are also called myofibers.

“Skeletal muscle condition” as used herein refers to a condition relatedto the skeletal muscle, such as muscular dystrophies, aging, muscledegeneration, wound healing, and muscle weakness or atrophy.

“Spacers” and “spacer region” as used interchangeably herein refers tothe region within a TALEN or ZFN target region that is between, but nota part of, the binding regions for two TALENs or ZFNs.

“Subject” and “patient” as used herein interchangeably refers to anyvertebrate, including, but not limited to, a mammal (e.g., cow, pig,camel, llama, horse, goat, rabbit, sheep, hamsters, guinea pig, cat,dog, rat, and mouse, a non-human primate (for example, a monkey, such asa cynomolgous or rhesus monkey, chimpanzee, etc.) and a human). In someembodiments, the subject may be a human or a non-human. The subject orpatient may be undergoing other forms of treatment.

“Target gene” as used herein refers to any nucleotide sequence encodinga known or putative gene product. The target gene may be a mutated geneinvolved in a genetic disease.

“Target region” as used herein refers to the region of the target geneto which the site-specific nuclease is designed to bind and cleave.

“Transcription activator-like effector” or “TALE” as used herein refersto a protein structure that recognizes and binds to a particular DNAsequence. The “TALE DNA-binding domain” refers to a DNA-binding domainthat includes an array of tandem 33-35 amino acid repeats, also known asRVD modules, each of which specifically recognizes a single base pair ofDNA. RVD modules may be arranged in any order to assemble an array thatrecognizes a defined sequence.

A binding specificity of a TALE DNA-binding domain is determined by theRVD array followed by a single truncated repeat of 20 amino acids. ATALE DNA-binding domain may have 12 to 27 RVD modules, each of whichcontains an RVD and recognizes a single base pair of DNA. Specific RVDshave been identified that recognize each of the four possible DNAnucleotides (A, T, C, and G). Because the TALE DNA-binding domains aremodular, repeats that recognize the four different DNA nucleotides maybe linked together to recognize any particular DNA sequence. Thesetargeted DNA-binding domains may then be combined with catalytic domainsto create functional enzymes, including artificial transcriptionfactors, methyltransferases, integrases, nucleases, and recombinases.

“Transcription activator-like effector nucleases” or “TALENs” as usedinterchangeably herein refers to engineered fusion proteins of thecatalytic domain of a nuclease, such as endonuclease FokI, and adesigned TALE DNA-binding domain that may be targeted to a custom DNAsequence. A “TALEN monomer” refers to an engineered fusion protein witha catalytic nuclease domain and a designed TALE DNA-binding domain. TwoTALEN monomers may be designed to target and cleave a TALEN targetregion.

“Transgene” as used herein refers to a gene or genetic materialcontaining a gene sequence that has been isolated from one organism andis introduced into a different organism. This non-native segment of DNAmay retain the ability to produce RNA or protein in the transgenicorganism, or it may alter the normal function of the transgenicorganism's genetic code. The introduction of a transgene has thepotential to change the phenotype of an organism.

“Variant” used herein with respect to a nucleic acid means (i) a portionor fragment of a referenced nucleotide sequence; (ii) the complement ofa referenced nucleotide sequence or portion thereof; (iii) a nucleicacid that is substantially identical to a referenced nucleic acid or thecomplement thereof; or (iv) a nucleic acid that hybridizes understringent conditions to the referenced nucleic acid, complement thereof,or a sequences substantially identical thereto.

“Variant” with respect to a peptide or polypeptide that differs in aminoacid sequence by the insertion, deletion, or conservative substitutionof amino acids, but retain at least one biological activity. Variant mayalso mean a protein with an amino acid sequence that is substantiallyidentical to a referenced protein with an amino acid sequence thatretains at least one biological activity. A conservative substitution ofan amino acid, i.e., replacing an amino acid with a different amino acidof similar properties (e.g., hydrophilicity, degree and distribution ofcharged regions) is recognized in the art as typically involving a minorchange. These minor changes may be identified, in part, by consideringthe hydropathic index of amino acids, as understood in the art. Kyte etal., J. Mol. Biol. 157:105-132 (1982). The hydropathic index of an aminoacid is based on a consideration of its hydrophobicity and charge. It isknown in the art that amino acids of similar hydropathic indexes may besubstituted and still retain protein function. In one aspect, aminoacids having hydropathic indexes of ±2 are substituted. Thehydrophilicity of amino acids may also be used to reveal substitutionsthat would result in proteins retaining biological function. Aconsideration of the hydrophilicity of amino acids in the context of apeptide permits calculation of the greatest local average hydrophilicityof that peptide. Substitutions may be performed with amino acids havinghydrophilicity values within ±2 of each other. Both the hydrophobicityindex and the hydrophilicity value of amino acids are influenced by theparticular side chain of that amino acid. Consistent with thatobservation, amino acid substitutions that are compatible withbiological function are understood to depend on the relative similarityof the amino acids, and particularly the side chains of those aminoacids, as revealed by the hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, charge, size,and other properties.

“Vector” as used herein means a nucleic acid sequence containing anorigin of replication. A vector may be a viral vector, bacteriophage,bacterial artificial chromosome or yeast artificial chromosome. A vectormay be a DNA or RNA vector. A vector may be a self-replicatingextrachromosomal vector, and preferably, is a DNA plasmid. For example,the vector may encode an iCas9-VP64 fusion protein comprising the aminoacid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or at least one gRNA nucleotide sequenceof any one of SEQ ID NOs: 5-40, 65-144, 492-515, 540-563, and 585-625.Alternatively, the vector may encode Cas9 and at least one gRNAnucleotide sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 5-40, 65-144, 492-515,540-563, and 585-625.

“Zinc finger” as used herein refers to a protein structure thatrecognizes and binds to DNA sequences. The zinc finger domain is themost common DNA-binding motif in the human proteome. A single zincfinger contains approximately 30 amino acids and the domain typicallyfunctions by binding 3 consecutive base pairs of DNA via interactions ofa single amino acid side chain per base pair.

“Zinc finger nuclease” or “ZFN” as used interchangeably herein refers toa chimeric protein molecule comprising at least one zinc finger DNAbinding domain effectively linked to at least one nuclease or part of anuclease capable of cleaving DNA when fully assembled.

Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used inconnection with the present disclosure shall have the meanings that arecommonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. For example,any nomenclatures used in connection with, and techniques of, cell andtissue culture, molecular biology, immunology, microbiology, geneticsand protein and nucleic acid chemistry and hybridization describedherein are those that are well known and commonly used in the art. Themeaning and scope of the terms should be clear; in the event however ofany latent ambiguity, definitions provided herein take precedent overany dictionary or extrinsic definition. Further, unless otherwiserequired by context, singular terms shall include pluralities and pluralterms shall include the singular.

2. COMPOSITIONS FOR GENOME EDITING

The present invention is directed to compositions for genome editing,genomic alteration or altering gene expression of a target gene. Thecompositions may include a may include viral vector and fusion proteinsuch as a site-specific nuclease or CRISPR/Cas9-system with at least onegRNA.

a. Compositions for Genome Editing in Muscle

The present invention is directed to a composition for genome editing atarget gene in skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle of a subject. Thecomposition includes a modified AAV vector and a nucleotide sequenceencoding a site-specific nuclease. The composition delivers active formsof site-specific nucleases to skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle. Thecomposition may further comprise a donor DNA or a transgene. Thesecompositions may be used in genome editing, genome engineering, andcorrecting or reducing the effects of mutations in genes involved ingenetic diseases and/or other skeletal or cardiac muscle conditions.

The target gene may be involved in differentiation of a cell or anyother process in which activation, repression, or disruption of a genemay be desired, or may have a mutation such as a deletion, frameshiftmutation, or a nonsense mutation. If the target gene has a mutation thatcauses a premature stop codon, an aberrant splice acceptor site or anaberrant splice donor site, the site-specific nucleases may be designedto recognize and bind a nucleotide sequence upstream or downstream fromthe premature stop codon, the aberrant splice acceptor site or theaberrant splice donor site. The site-specific nucleases may also be usedto disrupt normal gene splicing by targeting splice acceptors and donorsto induce skipping of premature stop codons or restore a disruptedreading frame. The site-specific nucleases may or may not mediateoff-target changes to protein-coding regions of the genome.

3. CRISPR SYSTEM

“Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats” and“CRISPRs”, as used interchangeably herein refers to loci containingmultiple short direct repeats that are found in the genomes ofapproximately 40% of sequenced bacteria and 90% of sequenced archaea.The CRISPR system is a microbial nuclease system involved in defenseagainst invading phages and plasmids that provides a form of acquiredimmunity. The CRISPR loci in microbial hosts contain a combination ofCRISPR-associated (Cas) genes as well as non-coding RNA elements capableof programming the specificity of the CRISPR-mediated nucleic acidcleavage. Short segments of foreign DNA, called spacers, areincorporated into the genome between CRISPR repeats, and serve as a‘memory’ of past exposures. Cas9 forms a complex with the 3′ end of thesgRNA, and the protein-RNA pair recognizes its genomic target bycomplementary base pairing between the 5′ end of the sgRNA sequence anda predefined 20 bp DNA sequence, known as the protospacer. This complexis directed to homologous loci of pathogen DNA via regions encodedwithin the crRNA, i.e., the protospacers, and protospacer-adjacentmotifs (PAMs) within the pathogen genome. The non-coding CRISPR array istranscribed and cleaved within direct repeats into short crRNAscontaining individual spacer sequences, which direct Cas nucleases tothe target site (protospacer). By simply exchanging the 20 bprecognition sequence of the expressed sgRNA, the Cas9 nuclease can bedirected to new genomic targets. CRISPR spacers are used to recognizeand silence exogenous genetic elements in a manner analogous to RNAi ineukaryotic organisms.

Three classes of CRISPR systems (Types I, II and III effector systems)are known. The Type II effector system carries out targeted DNAdouble-strand break in four sequential steps, using a single effectorenzyme, Cas9, to cleave dsDNA. Compared to the Type I and Type IIIeffector systems, which require multiple distinct effectors acting as acomplex, the Type II effector system may function in alternativecontexts such as eukaryotic cells. The Type II effector system consistsof a long pre-crRNA, which is transcribed from the spacer-containingCRISPR locus, the Cas9 protein, and a tracrRNA, which is involved inpre-crRNA processing. The tracrRNAs hybridize to the repeat regionsseparating the spacers of the pre-crRNA, thus initiating dsRNA cleavageby endogenous RNase III. This cleavage is followed by a second cleavageevent within each spacer by Cas9, producing mature crRNAs that remainassociated with the tracrRNA and Cas9, forming a Cas9:crRNA-tracrRNAcomplex.

The Cas9:crRNA-tracrRNA complex unwinds the DNA duplex and searches forsequences matching the crRNA to cleave. Target recognition occurs upondetection of complementarity between a “protospacer” sequence in thetarget DNA and the remaining spacer sequence in the crRNA. Cas9 mediatescleavage of target DNA if a correct protospacer-adjacent motif (PAM) isalso present at the 3′ end of the protospacer. For protospacertargeting, the sequence must be immediately followed by theprotospacer-adjacent motif (PAM), a short sequence recognized by theCas9 nuclease that is required for DNA cleavage. Different Type IIsystems have differing PAM requirements. The S. pyogenes CRISPR systemmay have the PAM sequence for this Cas9 (SpCas9) as 5′-NRG-3′, where Ris either A or G, and characterized the specificity of this system inhuman cells. A unique capability of the CRISPR/Cas9 system is thestraightforward ability to simultaneously target multiple distinctgenomic loci by co-expressing a single Cas9 protein with two or moresgRNAs. For example, the Streptococcus pyogenes Type II system naturallyprefers to use an “NGG” sequence, where “N” can be any nucleotide, butalso accepts other PAM sequences, such as “NAG” in engineered systems(Hsu et al., Nature Biotechnology (2013) doi:10.1038/nbt.2647).Similarly, the Cas9 derived from Neisseria meningitidis (NmCas9)normally has a native PAM of NNNNGATT, but has activity across a varietyof PAMs, including a highly degenerate NNNNGNNN PAM (Esvelt et al.Nature Methods (2013) doi:10.1038/nmeth.2681).

4. CRISPR/Cas9-BASED SYSTEM

An engineered form of the Type II effector system of Streptococcuspyogenes was shown to function in human cells for genome engineering. Inthis system, the Cas9 protein was directed to genomic target sites by asynthetically reconstituted “guide RNA” (“gRNA”, also usedinterchangeably herein as a chimeric single guide RNA (“sgRNA”)), whichis a crRNA-tracrRNA fusion that obviates the need for RNase III andcrRNA processing in general (see FIG. 53A). Provided herein areCRISPR/Cas9-based engineered systems for use in genome editing andtreating genetic diseases. The CRISPR/Cas9-based engineered systems maybe designed to target any gene, including genes involved in a geneticdisease, aging, tissue regeneration, or wound healing. TheCRISPR/Cas9-based systems may include a Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusionprotein and at least one gRNA. The Cas9 fusion protein may, for example,include a domain that has a different activity that what is endogenousto Cas9, such as a transactivation domain.

The target gene may be involved in differentiation of a cell or anyother process in which activation of a gene may be desired, or may havea mutation such as a frameshift mutation or a nonsense mutation. If thetarget gene has a mutation that causes a premature stop codon, anaberrant splice acceptor site or an aberrant splice donor site, theCRISPR/Cas9-based system may be designed to recognize and bind anucleotide sequence upstream or downstream from the premature stopcodon, the aberrant splice acceptor site or the aberrant splice donorsite. The CRISPR-Cas9-based system may also be used to disrupt normalgene splicing by targeting splice acceptors and donors to induceskipping of premature stop codons or restore a disrupted reading frame.The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may or may not mediate off-target changesto protein-coding regions of the genome.

a. Cas9

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may include a Cas9 protein or a Cas9 fusionprotein. Cas9 protein is an endonuclease that cleaves nucleic acid andis encoded by the CRISPR loci and is involved in the Type II CRISPRsystem. The Cas9 protein may be from any bacterial or archaea species,such as Streptococcus pyogenes. The Cas9 protein may be mutated so thatthe nuclease activity is inactivated. An inactivated Cas9 protein fromStreptococcus pyogenes (iCas9, also referred to as “dCas9”) with noendonuclease activity has been recently targeted to genes in bacteria,yeast, and human cells by gRNAs to silence gene expression throughsteric hindrance. As used herein, “iCas9” and “dCas9” both refer to aCas9 protein that has the amino acid substitutions D10A and H840A andhas its nuclease activity inactivated. For example, theCRISPR/Cas9-based system may include a Cas9 of SEQ ID NO: 459 or 461.

b. Cas9 Fusion Protein

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may include a fusion protein. The fusionprotein may comprise two heterologous polypeptide domains, wherein thefirst polypeptide domain comprises a Cas protein and the secondpolypeptide domain has an activity such as transcription activationactivity, transcription repression activity, transcription releasefactor activity, histone modification activity, nuclease activity,nucleic acid association activity, methylase activity, or demethylaseactivity. The fusion protein may include a Cas9 protein or a mutatedCas9 protein, as described above, fused to a second polypeptide domainthat has an activity such as transcription activation activity,transcription repression activity, transcription release factoractivity, histone modification activity, nuclease activity, nucleic acidassociation activity, methylase activity, or demethylase activity.

(1) Transcription Activation Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have transcription activationactivity, i.e., a transactivation domain. For example, gene expressionof endogenous mammalian genes, such as human genes, may be achieved bytargeting a fusion protein of iCas9 and a transactivation domain tomammalian promoters via combinations of gRNAs. The transactivationdomain may include a VP16 protein, multiple VP16 proteins, such as aVP48 domain or VP64 domain, or p65 domain of NF kappa B transcriptionactivator activity. For example, the fusion protein may be iCas9-VP64.

(2) Transcription Repression Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have transcription repressionactivity. The second polypeptide domain may have a Kruppel associatedbox activity, such as a KRAB domain, ERF repressor domain activity, Mxilrepressor domain activity, SID4X repressor domain activity, Mad-SIDrepressor domain activity or TATA box binding protein activity. Forexample, the fusion protein may be dCas9-KRAB.

(3) Transcription Release Factor Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have transcription release factoractivity. The second polypeptide domain may have eukaryotic releasefactor 1 (ERF1) activity or eukaryotic release factor 3 (ERF3) activity.

(4) Histone Modification Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have histone modification activity.The second polypeptide domain may have histone deacetylase, histoneacetyltransferase, histone demethylase, or histone methyltransferaseactivity. The histone acetyltransferase may be p300 or CREB-bindingprotein (CBP) protein, or fragments thereof. For example, the fusionprotein may be dCas9-p300.

(5) Nuclease Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have nuclease activity that isdifferent from the nuclease activity of the Cas9 protein. A nuclease, ora protein having nuclease activity, is an enzyme capable of cleaving thephosphodiester bonds between the nucleotide subunits of nucleic acids.Nucleases are usually further divided into endonucleases andexonucleases, although some of the enzymes may fall in both categories.Well known nucleases are deoxyribonuclease and ribonuclease.

(6) Nucleic Acid Association Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have nucleic acid association activityor nucleic acid binding protein-DNA-binding domain (DBD) is anindependently folded protein domain that contains at least one motifthat recognizes double- or single-stranded DNA. A DBD can recognize aspecific DNA sequence (a recognition sequence) or have a generalaffinity to DNA. nucleic acid association region selected from the groupconsisting of helix-turn-helix region, leucine zipper region, wingedhelix region, winged helix-turn-helix region, helix-loop-helix region,immunoglobulin fold, B3 domain, Zinc finger, HMG-box, Wor3 domain, TALeffector DNA-binding domain.

(7) Methylase Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have methylase activity, whichinvolves transferring a methyl group to DNA, RNA, protein, smallmolecule, cytosine or adenine. The second polypeptide domain may includea DNA methyltransferase.

(8) Demethylase Activity

The second polypeptide domain may have demethylase activity. The secondpolypeptide domain may include an enzyme that remove methyl (CH3-)groups from nucleic acids, proteins (in particular histones), and othermolecules. Alternatively, the second polypeptide may covert the methylgroup to hydroxymethylcytosine in a mechanism for demethylating DNA. Thesecond polypeptide may catalyze this reaction. For example, the secondpolypeptide that catalyzes this reaction may be Tet1.

c. gRNA

The gRNA provides the targeting of the CRISPR/Cas9-based system. ThegRNA is a fusion of two noncoding RNAs: a crRNA and a tracrRNA. ThesgRNA may target any desired DNA sequence by exchanging the sequenceencoding a 20 bp protospacer which confers targeting specificity throughcomplementary base pairing with the desired DNA target. gRNA mimics thenaturally occurring crRNA:tracrRNA duplex involved in the Type IIEffector system. This duplex, which may include, for example, a42-nucleotide crRNA and a 75-nucleotide tracrRNA, acts as a guide forthe Cas9 to cleave the target nucleic acid. The “target region”, “targetsequence” or “protospacer” as used interchangeably herein refers to theregion of the target gene to which the CRISPR/Cas9-based system targets.The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may include at least one gRNA, wherein thegRNAs target different DNA sequences. The target DNA sequences may beoverlapping. The target sequence or protospacer is followed by a PAMsequence at the 3′ end of the protospacer. Different Type II systemshave differing PAM requirements. For example, the Streptococcus pyogenesType II system uses an “NGG” sequence, where “N” can be any nucleotide.

The number of gRNA administered to the cell may be at least 1 gRNA, atleast 2 different gRNA, at least 3 different gRNA at least 4 differentgRNA, at least 5 different gRNA, at least 6 different gRNA, at least 7different gRNA, at least 8 different gRNA, at least 9 different gRNA, atleast 10 different gRNAs, at least 11 different gRNAs, at least 12different gRNAs, at least 13 different gRNAs, at least 14 differentgRNAs, at least 15 different gRNAs, at least 16 different gRNAs, atleast 17 different gRNAs, at least 18 different gRNAs, at least 18different gRNAs, at least 20 different gRNAs, at least 25 differentgRNAs, at least 30 different gRNAs, at least 35 different gRNAs, atleast 40 different gRNAs, at least 45 different gRNAs, or at least 50different gRNAs. The number of gRNA administered to the cell may bebetween at least 1 gRNA to at least 50 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNAto at least 45 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 40 differentgRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 35 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNAto at least 30 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 25 differentgRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 20 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNAto at least 16 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 12 differentgRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 8 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA toat least 4 different gRNAs, at least 4 gRNAs to at least 50 differentgRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 45 different gRNAs, atleast 4 different gRNAs to at least 40 different gRNAs, at least 4different gRNAs to at least 35 different gRNAs, at least 4 differentgRNAs to at least 30 different gRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to atleast 25 different gRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 20different gRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 16 differentgRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 12 different gRNAs, atleast 4 different gRNAs to at least 8 different gRNAs, at least 8different gRNAs to at least 50 different gRNAs, at least 8 differentgRNAs to at least 45 different gRNAs, at least 8 different gRNAs to atleast 40 different gRNAs, at least 8 different gRNAs to at least 35different gRNAs, 8 different gRNAs to at least 30 different gRNAs, atleast 8 different gRNAs to at least 25 different gRNAs, 8 differentgRNAs to at least 20 different gRNAs, at least 8 different gRNAs to atleast 16 different gRNAs, or 8 different gRNAs to at least 12 differentgRNAs.

The gRNA may comprise a complementary polynucleotide sequence of thetarget DNA sequence followed by a PAM sequence. The gRNA may comprise a“G” at the 5′ end of the complementary polynucleotide sequence. The gRNAmay comprise at least a 10 base pair, at least a 11 base pair, at leasta 12 base pair, at least a 13 base pair, at least a 14 base pair, atleast a 15 base pair, at least a 16 base pair, at least a 17 base pair,at least a 18 base pair, at least a 19 base pair, at least a 20 basepair, at least a 21 base pair, at least a 22 base pair, at least a 23base pair, at least a 24 base pair, at least a 25 base pair, at least a30 base pair, or at least a 35 base pair complementary polynucleotidesequence of the target DNA sequence followed by a PAM sequence. The PAMsequence may be “NGG”, where “N” can be any nucleotide. The gRNA maytarget at least one of the promoter region, the enhancer region or thetranscribed region of the target gene. The gRNA may bind and target anucleic acid sequence of corresponding to at least one of SEQ ID NOs:5-40, 65-144, 492-515, 540-563, 585-625, 462 (FIG. 40), 464 (FIG. 41),and 465 (FIG. 41).

The gRNA may target any nucleic acid sequence. The nucleic acid sequencetarget may be DNA. The DNA may be any gene. For example, the gRNA maytarget a gene, such as BRN2, MYT1L, ASCL1, NANOG, VEGFA, TERT, IL1B,IL1R2, IL1RN, HBG1, HBG2, MYOD1, OCT4, and DMD.

(1) Dystrophin

Dystrophin is a rod-shaped cytoplasmic protein which is a part of aprotein complex that connects the cytoskeleton of a muscle fiber to thesurrounding extracellular matrix through the cell membrane. Dystrophinprovides structural stability to the dystroglycan complex of the cellmembrane. The dystrophin gene is 2.2 megabases at locus Xp21. Theprimary transcription measures about 2,400 kb with the mature mRNA beingabout 14 kb. 79 exons code for the protein which is over 3500 aminoacids. Normal skeleton muscle tissue contains only small amounts ofdystrophin but its absence of abnormal expression leads to thedevelopment of severe and incurable symptoms. Some mutations in thedystrophin gene lead to the production of defective dystrophin andsevere dystrophic phenotype in affected patients. Some mutations in thedystrophin gene lead to partially-functional dystrophin protein and amuch milder dystrophic phenotype in affected patients.

DMD is the result of inherited or spontaneous mutations that causenonsense or frame shift mutations in the dystrophin gene. Naturallyoccurring mutations and their consequences are relatively wellunderstood for DMD. It is known that in-frame deletions that occur inthe exon 45-55 region contained within the rod domain can produce highlyfunctional dystrophin proteins, and many carriers are asymptomatic ordisplay mild symptoms. Furthermore, more than 60% of patients maytheoretically be treated by targeting exons in this region of thedystrophin gene. Efforts have been made to restore the disrupteddystrophin reading frame in DMD patients by skipping non-essential exonsduring mRNA splicing to produce internally deleted but functionaldystrophin proteins. The deletion of internal dystrophin exons retainthe proper reading frame but cause the less severe Becker musculardystrophy.

(2) CRISPR/Cas9-Based System for Targeting Dystrophin

A CRISPR/Cas9-based system specific for dystrophin gene are disclosedherein. The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may include Cas9 and at least onegRNA to target the dystrophin gene. The CRISPR/Cas9-based system maybind and recognize a target region. The target regions may be chosenimmediately upstream of possible out-of-frame stop codons such thatinsertions or deletions during the repair process restore the dystrophinreading frame by frame conversion. Target regions may also be spliceacceptor sites or splice donor sites, such that insertions or deletionsduring the repair process disrupt splicing and restore the dystrophinreading frame by splice site disruption and exon exclusion. Targetregions may also be aberrant stop codons such that insertions ordeletions during the repair process restore the dystrophin reading frameby eliminating or disrupting the stop codon.

Single or multiplexed sgRNAs may be designed to restore the dystrophinreading frame by targeting the mutational hotspot at exons 45-55 andintroducing either intraexonic small insertions and deletions, or largedeletions of one or more exons. Following treatment with Cas9 and one ormore sgRNAs, dystrophin expression may be restored in Duchenne patientmuscle cells in vitro. Human dystrophin was detected in vivo followingtransplantation of genetically corrected patient cells intoimmunodeficient mice. Significantly, the unique multiplex gene editingcapabilities of the CRISPR/Cas9 system enable efficiently generatinglarge deletions of this mutational hotspot region that can correct up to62% of patient mutations by universal or patient-specific gene editingapproaches.

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may use gRNA of varying sequences andlengths. Examples of gRNAs may be found in Table 6. TheCRISPR/Cas9-based system may target a nucleic acid sequence of SEQ IDNOs: 65-144, or a complement thereof. The gRNA may include a nucleotidesequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 65-144, or acomplement thereof. For example, the disclosed CRISPR/Cas9-based systemswere engineered to mediate highly efficient gene editing at exon 51 ofthe dystrophin gene. These CRISPR/Cas9-based systems restored dystrophinprotein expression in cells from DMD patients.

(a) Exons 51 and 45-55

Exon 51 is frequently adjacent to frame-disrupting deletions in DMD.Elimination of exon 51 from the dystrophin transcript by exon skippingcan be used to treat approximately 15% of all DMD patients. This classof DMD mutations is ideally suited for permanent correction byNHEJ-based genome editing and HDR. The CRISPR/Cas9-based systemsdescribed herein have been developed for targeted modification of exon51 in the human dystrophin gene. These CRISPR/Cas9-based systems weretransfected into human DMD cells and mediated efficient genemodification and conversion to the correct reading frame. Proteinrestoration was concomitant with frame restoration and detected in abulk population of CRISPR/Cas9-based system-treated cells. Similarly,the elimination of exons 45-55 of the dystrophin transcript can be usedto treat approximately 62% of all DMD patients.

(3) AAV/CRISPR Constructs

AAV may be used to deliver CRISPRs using various constructconfigurations (see FIG. 39). For example, AAV may deliver Cas9 and gRNAexpression cassettes on separate vectors. Alternatively, if the smallCas9 proteins, derived from species such as Staphylococcus aureus orNeisseria meningitidis, are used then both the Cas9 and up to two gRNAexpression cassettes may be combined in a single AAV vector within the4.7 kb packaging limit (see FIG. 39).

5. MULTIPLEX CRISPR/Cas9-BASED SYSTEM

The present disclosure is directed to a multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-BasedSystem which includes a CRISPR/CRISPR-associated (Cas) 9-based system,such as Cas9 or dCas9, and multiple gRNAs to target one or moreendogenous genes. This platform utilizes a convenient Golden Gatecloning method to rapidly incorporate up to four independent sgRNAexpression cassettes into a single lentiviral vector. Each sgRNA wasefficiently expressed and could mediate multiplex gene editing atdiverse loci in immortalized and primary human cell lines. Transienttranscriptional activation in cell lines stably expressing dCas9-VP64was demonstrated to be tunable by synergistic activation with one tofour sgRNAs. Furthermore, the single lentiviral vector can inducesustained and long-term endogenous gene expression in immortalized andprimary human cells. This system allows for rapid assembly of a singlelentiviral vector that enables efficient multiplex gene editing oractivation in model and primary cell lines.

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based System provides potency oftranscriptional activation and tunable induction of transcriptionalactivation. Readily generated by Golden Gate assembly, the final vectorexpresses a constitutive Cas9 or dCas9-VP64 in addition to one, two,three, or four sgRNAs expressed from independent promoters. Eachpromoter is capable of efficiently expressing sgRNAs that direct similarlevels of Cas9 nuclease activity. Furthermore, lentiviral delivery of asingle vector expressing Cas9 and four sgRNAs targeting independent lociresulted in simultaneous multiplex gene editing of all four loci.Tunable transcriptional activation at two endogenous genes in bothtransient and stable contexts was achieved using lentiviral delivery ofCas9 with or without sgRNAs. Highly efficient and long-term geneactivation in primary human cells is accomplished. This system istherefore an attractive and efficient method to generate multiplex geneediting and long-term transcriptional activation in human cells.

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based System allows efficient multiplex geneediting for simultaneously inactivating multiple genes. The CRISPR/Cas9system can simultaneously target multiple distinct genomic loci byco-expressing a single Cas9 protein with two or more sgRNAs, making thissystem uniquely suited for multiplex gene editing or synergisticactivation applications. The CRISPR/Cas9 system greatly expedites theprocess of molecular targeting to new sites by simply modifying theexpressed sgRNA molecule. The single lentiviral vector may be combinedwith methods for achieving inducible control of these components, eitherby chemical or optogenetic regulation, to facilitate investigation ofthe dynamics of gene regulation in both time and space.

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-based systems may transcriptionally activatetwo or more endogenous genes. The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-based systemsmay transcriptionally repress two or more endogenous genes. For example,at least two endogenous genes, at least three endogenous genes, at leastfour endogenous genes, at least five endogenous genes, or at least tenendogenous genes may be activated or repressed by the multiplexCRISPR/Cas9-based system. Between two and fifteen genes, between two andten genes, between two and five genes, between five and fifteen genes,or between five and ten genes may be activated or repressed by themultiplex CRISPR/Cas9-based system.

(1) Modified Lentiviral Vector

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-based system includes a modified lentiviralvector. The modified lentiviral vector includes a first polynucleotidesequence encoding a fusion protein and a second polynucleotide sequenceencoding at least one sgRNA. The fusion protein may be the fusionprotein of the CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as described above. The firstpolynucleotide sequence may be operably linked to a promoter. Thepromoter may be a constitutive promoter, an inducible promoter, arepressible promoter, or a regulatable promoter.

The second polynucleotide sequence encodes at least 1 sgRNA. Forexample, the second polynucleotide sequence may encode at least 1 sgRNA,at least 2 sgRNAs, at least 3 sgRNAs, at least 4 sgRNAs, at least 5sgRNAs, at least 6 sgRNAs, at least 7 sgRNAs, at least 8 sgRNAs, atleast 9 sgRNAs, at least 10 sgRNAs, at least 11 sgRNA, at least 12sgRNAs, at least 13 sgRNAs, at least 14 sgRNAs, at least 15 sgRNAs, atleast 16 sgRNAs, at least 17 sgRNAs, at least 18 sgRNAs, at least 19sgRNAs, at least 20 sgRNAs, at least 25 sgRNA, at least 30 sgRNAs, atleast 35 sgRNAs, at least 40 sgRNAs, at least 45 sgRNAs, or at least 50sgRNAs.

The second polynucleotide sequence may encode between 1 sgRNA and 50sgRNAs, between 1 sgRNA and 45 sgRNAs, between 1 sgRNA and 40 sgRNAs,between 1 sgRNA and 35 sgRNAs, between 1 sgRNA and 30 sgRNAs, between 1sgRNA and 25 different sgRNAs, between 1 sgRNA and 20 sgRNAs, between 1sgRNA and 16 sgRNAs, between 1 sgRNA and 8 different sgRNAs, between 4different sgRNAs and 50 different sgRNAs, between 4 different sgRNAs and45 different sgRNAs, between 4 different sgRNAs and 40 different sgRNAs,between 4 different sgRNAs and 35 different sgRNAs, between 4 differentsgRNAs and 30 different sgRNAs, between 4 different sgRNAs and 25different sgRNAs, between 4 different sgRNAs and 20 different sgRNAs,between 4 different sgRNAs and 16 different sgRNAs, between 4 differentsgRNAs and 8 different sgRNAs, between 8 different sgRNAs and 50different sgRNAs, between 8 different sgRNAs and 45 different sgRNAs,between 8 different sgRNAs and 40 different sgRNAs, between 8 differentsgRNAs and 35 different sgRNAs, between 8 different sgRNAs and 30different sgRNAs, between 8 different sgRNAs and 25 different sgRNAs,between 8 different sgRNAs and 20 different sgRNAs, between 8 differentsgRNAs and 16 different sgRNAs, between 16 different sgRNAs and 50different sgRNAs, between 16 different sgRNAs and 45 different sgRNAs,between 16 different sgRNAs and 40 different sgRNAs, between 16different sgRNAs and 35 different sgRNAs, between 16 different sgRNAsand 30 different sgRNAs, between 16 different sgRNAs and 25 differentsgRNAs, or between 16 different sgRNAs and 20 different sgRNAs. Each ofthe polynucleotide sequences encoding the different sgRNAs may beoperably linked to a promoter. The promoters that are operably linked tothe different sgRNAs may be the same promoter. The promoters that areoperably linked to the different sgRNAs may be different promoters. Thepromoter may be a constitutive promoter, an inducible promoter, arepressible promoter, or a regulatable promoter.

The at least one sgRNA may bind to a target gene or loci. If more thanone sgRNA is included, each of the sgRNAs binds to a different targetregion within one target loci or each of the sgRNA binds to a differenttarget region within different gene loci. The fusion protein may includeCas9 protein or iCas9-VP64 protein. The fusion protein may include aVP64 domain, a p300 domain, or a KRAB domain.

6. SITE-SPECIFIC NUCLEASES

The composition, as described above, includes a nucleotide sequenceencoding a site-specific nuclease that binds and cleaves a targetregion. The site-specific nuclease may be engineered. For example, anengineered site-specific nuclease may be a CRISPR/Cas9-based system, aZFN, or a TALEN. The site-specific nuclease may bind and cleave a geneor locus in the genome of a cell in the skeletal muscle or cardiacmuscle. For example, the gene or locus may be the Rosa26 locus or thedystrophin gene.

a. CRISPR/Cas9-Based System

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as described above, may be used tointroduce site-specific double strand breaks at targeted genomic loci.

b. Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFN)

The site-specific nuclease may be a ZFN. A single zinc finger containsapproximately 30 amino acids and the domain functions by binding 3consecutive base pairs of DNA via interactions of a single amino acidside chain per base pair. The modular structure of the zinc finger motifpermits the conjunction of several domains in series, allowing for therecognition and targeting of extended sequences in multiples of 3nucleotides. These targeted DNA-binding domains can be combined with anuclease domain, such as FokI, to generate a site-specific nuclease,called a “zinc finger nuclease” (ZFNs) that can be used to introducesite-specific double strand breaks at targeted genomic loci. This DNAcleavage stimulates the natural DNA-repair machinery, leading to one oftwo possible repair pathways, NHEJ and HDR. For example, the ZFN maytarget the Rosa26 locus (Perez-Pinera et al. Nucleic Acids Research(2012) 40:3741-3752) or a dystrophin gene. Examples of ZFNs are shown inTable 1 and FIGS. 35-38. In Table 1, the DNA recognition helices areunderlined and “Fok ELD-S” and “Fok KKR-S” refers to the FokI nucleasedomain that is fused to the zinc finger protein DNA-binding domains. InFIGS. 35-38, the target DNA sequence in the target sites (i.e., in SEQID NOs: 442, 445, 448, and 453) and the DNA recognition helices in theZFN amino acid sequences (i.e., in SEQ ID NOs: 443, 444, 446, 447,449-452, 454, and 455) are underlined, respectively.

TABLE 1 Full amino acid sequences of identified ZFNs.ZFN B left Fok ELD-S full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 438)MDYKDHDGDYKDHDIDYKDDDDKMAPKKKRKVGRLEPGEKPYKCPECGKSFSRKDALRGHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSHRTTLTNHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSQRNALAGHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSHKNALQNHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSDPGHLVRHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSTSGNLVRHQRTHTGAAARALVKSELEEKKSELRHKLKYVPHEYIELIEIARNPTQDRILEMKVMEFFMKVYGYRGEHLGGSRKPDGAIYTVGSPIDYGVIVDTKAYSGGYNLPIGQADEMERYVEENQTRDKHLNPNEWWKVYPSSVTEFKFLEVSGHFKGNYKAQLTRLNHITNCNGAVLSVEELLIGGEMIKAGTLTLEEVRRKFN NGEINF*ZFN B right Fok KKR-S full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 439)MDYKDHDGDYKDHDIDYKDDDDKMAPKKKRKVGRLEPGEKPYKCPECGKSFSQQRSLVGHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSDKKDLTRHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSTSGHLVRHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSQRAHLERHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSTSGSLVRHQRTHTGEKPYKCPECGKSFSTSGNLVRHQRTHTGAAARALVKSELEEKKSELRHKLKYVPHEYIELIEIARNPTQDRILEMKVMEFFMKVYGYRGEHLGGSRKPDGAIYTVGSPIDYGVIVDTKAYSGGYNLPIGQADEMQRYVKENQTRNKHINPNEWWKVYPSSVTEFKFLEVSGHFKGNYKAQLTRLNRKTNCNGAVLSVEELLIGGEMIKAGTLTLEEVRRKFN NGEINF*ZFN J left Fok KKR-S full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 440)MDYKDHDGDYKDHDIDYKDDDDKMAPKKKRKVGRLEPGERPFQCRICMRNESSKQALAVHTRTHTGEKPFQCRICMRNESQSTTLKRHLRTHTGEKPFQCRICMRNFSRSDHLSLHLKTHLRGSQLVKSELEEKKSELRHKLKYVPHEYIELIEIARNPTQDRILEMKVMEFFMKVYGYRGEHLGGSRKPDGAIYTVGSPIDYGVIVDTKAYSGGYNLPIGQADEMQRYVKENQTRNKHINPNEWWKVYPSSVTEFKFLEVSGHFKGNYKAQLTRLNRKTNCNGAVLSVEELLIGGEMIK AGTLTLEEVRRKFNNGEINF*ZFN J right Fok ELD-S full amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 441)MDYKDHDGDYKDHDIDYKDDDDKMAPKKKRKVGRLEPGERPFQCRICMRNFSRRAHLQNHTRTHTGEKPFQCRICMRNESQSTTLKRHLRTHTGEKPFQCRICMRNFSDGGHLTRHLKTHLRGSQLVKSELEEKKSELRHKLKYVPHEYIELIEIARNPTQDRILEMKVMEFFMKVYGYRGEHLGGSRKPDGAIYTVGSPIDYGVIVDTKAYSGGYNLPIGQADEMERYVEENQTRDKHLNPNEWWKVYPSSVTEFKFLEVSGHFKGNYKAQLTRLNHITNCNGAVLSVEELLIGGEMIK AGTLTLEEVRRKFNNGEINF*

c. TAL Effector Nucleases (TALENs)

TALENs may be used to introduce site-specific double strand breaks attargeted genomic loci. Site-specific double-strand breaks are createdwhen two independent TALENs bind to nearby DNA sequences, therebypermitting dimerization of FokI and cleavage of the target DNA. TALENshave advanced genome editing due to their high rate of successful andefficient genetic modification. This DNA cleavage may stimulate thenatural DNA-repair machinery, leading to one of two possible repairpathways: homology-directed repair (HDR) or the non-homologous endjoining (NHEJ) pathway. The TALENs may be designed to target any geneinvolved in a genetic disease.

The TALENs may include a nuclease and a TALE DNA-binding domain thatbinds to the target gene in a TALEN target region. The target gene mayhave a mutation such as a frameshift mutation or a nonsense mutation. Ifthe target gene has a mutation that causes a premature stop codon, theTALEN may be designed to recognize and bind a nucleotide sequenceupstream or downstream from the premature stop codon. A “TALEN targetregion” includes the binding regions for two TALENs and the spacerregion, which occurs between the binding regions. The two TALENs bind todifferent binding regions within the TALEN target region, after whichthe TALEN target region is cleaved. Examples of TALENs are described inInternational Patent Application No. PCT/US2013/038536, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety.

7. TRANSCRIPTIONAL ACTIVATORS

The composition, as described above, includes a nucleotide sequenceencoding a transcriptional activator that activates a target gene. Thetranscriptional activator may be engineered. For example, an engineeredtranscriptional activator may be a CRISPR/Cas9-based system, a zincfinger fusion protein, or a TALE fusion protein.

a. CRISPR/Cas9-Based System

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as described above, may be used toactivate transcription of a target gene with RNA. The CRISPR/Cas9-basedsystem may include a fusion protein, as described above, wherein thesecond polypeptide domain has transcription activation activity orhistone modification activity. For example, the second polypeptidedomain may include VP64 or p300.

b. Zinc Finger Fusion Proteins

The transcriptional activator may be a zinc finger fusion protein. Thezinc finger targeted DNA-binding domains, as described above, can becombined with a domain that has transcription activation activity orhistone modification activity. For example, the domain may include VP64or p300.

c. TALE Fusion Proteins

TALE fusion proteins may be used to activate transcription of a targetgene. The TALE fusion protein may include a TALE DNA-binding domain anda domain that has transcription activation activity or histonemodification activity. For example, the domain may include VP64 or p300.

8. COMPOSITIONS

The present invention is directed to a composition for altering geneexpression and engineering or altering genomic DNA in a cell or subject.The composition may also include a viral delivery system.

a. Compositions for Genome Editing in Muscle

The present invention is directed to a composition for genome editing atarget gene in skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle of a subject. Thecomposition includes a modified AAV vector and a nucleotide sequenceencoding a site-specific nuclease. The composition delivers active formsof site-specific nucleases to skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle. Thecomposition may further comprise a donor DNA or a transgene. Thesecompositions may be used in genome editing, genome engineering, andcorrecting or reducing the effects of mutations in genes involved ingenetic diseases and/or other skeletal or cardiac muscle conditions.

The target gene may be involved in differentiation of a cell or anyother process in which activation, repression, or disruption of a genemay be desired, or may have a mutation such as a deletion, frameshiftmutation, or a nonsense mutation. If the target gene has a mutation thatcauses a premature stop codon, an aberrant splice acceptor site or anaberrant splice donor site, the site-specific nucleases may be designedto recognize and bind a nucleotide sequence upstream or downstream fromthe premature stop codon, the aberrant splice acceptor site or theaberrant splice donor site. The site-specific nucleases may also be usedto disrupt normal gene splicing by targeting splice acceptors and donorsto induce skipping of premature stop codons or restore a disruptedreading frame. The site-specific nucleases may or may not mediateoff-target changes to protein-coding regions of the genome.

b. Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors

The composition, as described above, includes a modifiedadeno-associated virus (AAV) vector. The modified AAV vector may haveenhanced cardiac and skeletal muscle tissue tropism. The modified AAVvector may be capable of delivering and expressing the site-specificnuclease in the cell of a mammal. For example, the modified AAV vectormay be an AAV-SASTG vector (Piacentino et al. (2012) Human Gene Therapy23:635-646). The modified AAV vector may deliver nucleases to skeletaland cardiac muscle in vivo. The modified AAV vector may be based on oneor more of several capsid types, including AAV1, AAV2, AAVS, AAV6, AAV8,and AAV9. The modified AAV vector may be based on AAV2 pseudotype withalternative muscle-tropic AAV capsids, such as AAV2/1, AAV2/6, AAV2/7,AAV2/8, AAV2/9, AAV2.5 and AAV/SASTG vectors that efficiently transduceskeletal muscle or cardiac muscle by systemic and local delivery (Setoet al. Current Gene Therapy (2012) 12:139-151).

c. CRISPR/Cas9-Based System

The present disclosure also provides DNA targeting systems orcompositions of at least one CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as describedabove. These compositions may be used in genome editing, genomeengineering, and correcting or reducing the effects of mutations ingenes involved in genetic diseases. The composition includes aCRISPR/Cas9-based system that includes a Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusionprotein, as described above. The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may alsoinclude at least one gRNA, as described above.

d. Multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based System

The present disclosure also provides multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-basedsystems, as described above. These compositions may be used in genomeediting, genome engineering, and correcting or reducing the effects ofmutations in genes involved in genetic diseases. These compositions maybe used to target more than one gene. The composition includes amodified lentiviral vector comprising a CRISPR/Cas9-based system thatincludes a Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein, as described above andmore than one gRNA, as described above.

9. METHODS OF USES

Potential applications of the compositions are diverse across many areasof science and biotechnology. The disclosed compositions may be used torepair genetic mutations that cause disease. The disclosed compositionsmay be used to disrupt genes such that gene disruption leads toincreases in muscle regeneration or muscle strength, or decreases inmuscle aging. The disclosed compositions may be used to introducetherapeutic genes to be expressed systemically from skeletal muscle orcardiac muscle, such as clotting factors or monoclonal antibodies. Thedisclosed compositions may be used to modulate mammalian geneexpression. The disclosed compositions may be used to transdifferentiateor induce the differentiation of a cell or correct a mutant gene in acell. Examples of activation of genes related to cell and gene therapy,genetic reprogramming, and regenerative medicine are provided.RNA-guided transcriptional activators may be used to reprogram celllineage specification. Activation of endogenous genes encoding the keyregulators of cell fate, rather than forced overexpression of thesefactors, may potentially lead to more rapid, efficient, stable, orspecific methods for genetic reprogramming, transdifferentiation, and/orinduced differentiation.

10. METHODS OF GENOME EDITING IN MUSCLE

The present disclosure is directed to a method of genome editing in askeletal muscle or cardiac muscle of a subject. The method comprisesadministering to the skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle of the subjectthe composition for genome editing in skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle,as described above. The genome editing may include correcting a mutantgene or inserting a transgene. Correcting the mutant gene may includedeleting, rearranging, or replacing the mutant gene. Correcting themutant gene may include nuclease-mediated NHEJ or HDR.

11. METHODS OF USING CRISPR/Cas9-BASED SYSTEM

Potential applications of the CRISPR/Cas9-based system are diverseacross many areas of science and biotechnology. The disclosedCRISPR/Cas9-based systems may be used to modulate mammalian geneexpression. The disclosed CRISPR/Cas9-based systems may be used totransdifferentiate or induce differentiation of a cell or correct amutant gene in a cell. Examples of activation of genes related to celland gene therapy, genetic reprogramming, and regenerative medicine areprovided. RNA-guided transcriptional activators may be used to reprogramcell lineage specification. Although reprogramming was incomplete andinefficient in these experiments, there are many ways by which thismethod could be improved, including repeated transfections ofiCas9-VP64/gRNA combinations, stable expression of these factors, andtargeting multiple genes, such as Brn2 and Mytll in addition to Ascl1for transdifferentiation into a neuronal phenotype. Activation ofendogenous genes encoding the key regulators of cell fate, rather thanforced overexpression of these factors, may potentially lead to morerapid, efficient, stable, or specific methods for genetic reprogrammingand transdifferentiation or induced differentiation of a cell. Finally,Cas9 fusions to other domains, including repressive andepigenetic-modifying domains, could provide a greater diversity ofRNA-guided transcriptional regulators to complement other RNA-basedtools for mammalian cell engineering.

a. Methods of Activating Gene Expression

The present disclosure provides a mechanism for activating theexpression of endogenous genes, such as mammalian genes, based ontargeting a transcriptional activator to promoters via RNA using aCRISPR/Cas9 based system, as described above. This is fundamentallydifferent from previously described methods based on engineeringsequence-specific DNA-binding proteins and may provide opportunities fortargeted gene regulation. Because the generation of gRNA expressionplasmids simply involves synthesizing two short custom oligonucleotidesand one cloning step, it is possible to generate many new geneactivators quickly and economically. The gRNAs can also be transfecteddirectly to cells following in vitro transcription. Multiple gRNAstargeted to single promoters were shown, but simultaneous targeting ofmultiple promoters could also be possible. Recognition of genomic targetsites with RNAs, rather than proteins, may also circumvent limitationsof targeting epigenetically modified sites, such as methylated DNA.

In contrast to current methods based on engineering DNA-bindingproteins, Cas9 fused to a transcriptional activation domain can betargeted by combinations of guide RNA molecules to induce the expressionof endogenous human genes. This straightforward and versatile approachfor targeted gene activation circumvents the need for engineering newproteins and allows for widespread synthetic gene regulation.

The method may include administering to a cell or subject aCRISPR/Cas9-based system, a polynucleotide or vector encoding saidCRISPR/Cas9-based system, or DNA targeting systems or compositions of atleast one CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as described above. The method mayinclude administering a CRISPR/Cas9-based system, such as administeringa Cas9 fusion protein containing transcription activation domain or anucleotide sequence encoding said Cas9 fusion protein. The Cas9 fusionprotein may include a transcription activation domain such as aVP16protein or a transcription co-activator such as a p300 protein.

(1) dCas9-VP16

The Cas9 fusion protein may include a transcription activation domainsuch as aVP16 protein. The transcription activation domain may containat least 1 VP16 protein, at least 2 VP16 proteins, at least 3 VP16proteins, at least 4 VP16 proteins (i.e., a VP64 activator domain), atleast 5 VP16 proteins, at least 6 VP16 proteins, at least 6 VP16proteins, or at least 10 VP16 proteins. The Cas9 protein may be a Cas9protein in which the nuclease activity is inactivated. For example, theCas9 protein in the fusion protein may be iCas9 (amino acids 36-1403 ofSEQ ID NO: 1), which includes the amino acid substitutions of D10A andH840A. The Cas9 fusion protein may be iCas9-VP64.

(2) dCas9-p300

The Cas9 fusion protein may include a transcription co-activation domainsuch as a p300 protein. The p300 protein (also known as EP300 or E1Abinding protein p300) is encoded by the EP300 gene and regulates theactivity of many genes in tissues throughout the body. The p300 proteinplays a role in regulating cell growth and division, prompting cells tomature and assume specialized functions (differentiate) and preventingthe growth of cancerous tumors. The p300 protein activates transcriptionby connecting transcription factors with a complex of proteins thatcarry out transcription in the cell's nucleus. The p300 interaction withtranscription factors is managed by one or more of p300 domains: thenuclear receptor interaction domain (RID), the CREB and MYB interactiondomain (KIX), the cysteine/histidine regions (TAZ1/CH1 and TAZ2/CH3) andthe interferon response binding domain (IBiD). The last four domains,KIX, TAZ1, TAZ2 and IBiD of p300, each bind tightly to a sequencespanning both transactivation domains 9aaTADs of transcription factorp53. The protein functions as histone acetyltransferase that regulatestranscription via chromatin remodeling, and is important in theprocesses of cell proliferation and differentiation. It mediatescAMP-gene regulation by binding specifically to phosphorylated CREBprotein.

The p300 protein may activate Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 7,MAF, TSG101, Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha, NPAS2,PAX6, DDX5, MYBL2, Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 1, Mothersagainst decapentaplegic homolog 2, Lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1,SNIP1, TRERF1, STAT3, EID1, RAR-related orphan receptor alpha, ELK1,HIF1A, ING5, Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, SS18,TCF3, Zif268, Estrogen receptor alpha, GPS2, MyoD, YY1, ING4, PROX1,CITED1, HNF1A, MEF2C, MEF2D, MAML1, Twist transcription factor, PTMA,IRF2, DTX1, Flap structure-specific endonuclease 1, Myocyte-specificenhancer factor 2A, CDX2, BRCA1, HNRPU, STATE, CITED2, RELA, TGS1,CEBPB, Mdm2, NCOA6, NFATC2, Thyroid hormone receptor alpha, BCL3,TFAP2A, PCNA, P53 and TALL

The transcription co-activation domain may include a human p300 proteinor a fragment thereof. The transcription co-activation domain mayinclude a wild-type human p300 protein or a mutant human p300 protein,or fragments thereof. The transcription co-activation domain may includethe core lysine-acetyltranserase domain of the human p300 protein, i.e.,the p300 HATCore (also known as “p300 WTCore”; see FIG. 58). The Cas9protein may be a Cas9 protein in which the nuclease activity isinactivated. For example, the Cas9 protein in the fusion protein may beiCas9 (amino acids 36-1403 of SEQ ID NO: 1), which includes the aminoacid substitutions of D10A and H840A. The Cas9 fusion protein may beiCas9-p300 WTCore.

(3) gRNA

The method may also include administering to a cell or subject aCRISPR/Cas9-based system at least one gRNA, wherein the gRNAs targetdifferent DNA sequences. The target DNA sequences may be overlapping.The number of gRNA administered to the cell may be at least 1 gRNA, atleast 2 different gRNAs, at least 3 different gRNAs at least 4 differentgRNAs, at least 5 different gRNAs, at least 6 different gRNAs, at least7 different gRNAs, at least 8 different gRNAs, at least 9 differentgRNAs, at least 10 different gRNAs, at least 11 different gRNAs, atleast 12 different gRNAs, at least 13 different gRNAs, at least 14different gRNAs, at least 15 different gRNAs, at least 16 differentgRNAs, at least 17 different gRNAs, at least 18 different gRNAs, atleast 18 different gRNAs, at least 20 different gRNAs, at least 25different gRNAs, at least 30 different gRNAs, at least 35 differentgRNAs, at least 40 different gRNAs, at least 45 different gRNAs, or atleast 50 different gRNAs. The number of gRNA administered to the cellmay be between at least 1 gRNA to at least 50 different gRNAs, at least1 gRNA to at least 45 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 40different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 35 different gRNAs, atleast 1 gRNA to at least 30 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least25 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 20 different gRNAs, atleast 1 gRNA to at least 16 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least12 different gRNAs, at least 1 gRNA to at least 8 different gRNAs, atleast 1 gRNA to at least 4 different gRNAs, at least 4 gRNAs to at least50 different gRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 45 differentgRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 40 different gRNAs, atleast 4 different gRNAs to at least 35 different gRNAs, at least 4different gRNAs to at least 30 different gRNAs, at least 4 differentgRNAs to at least 25 different gRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to atleast 20 different gRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 16different gRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 12 differentgRNAs, at least 4 different gRNAs to at least 8 different gRNAs, atleast 8 different gRNAs to at least 50 different gRNAs, at least 8different gRNAs to at least 45 different gRNAs, at least 8 differentgRNAs to at least 40 different gRNAs, at least 8 different gRNAs to atleast 35 different gRNAs, 8 different gRNAs to at least 30 differentgRNAs, at least 8 different gRNAs to at least 25 different gRNAs, 8different gRNAs to at least 20 different gRNAs, at least 8 differentgRNAs to at least 16 different gRNAs, 8 different gRNAs to at least 12different gRNAs, at least 8 different gRNAs to at least 8 differentgRNAs,

The gRNA may comprise a complementary polynucleotide sequence of thetarget DNA sequence followed by NGG. The gRNA may comprise a “G” at the5′ end of the complementary polynucleotide sequence. The gRNA maycomprise at least a 10 base pair, at least a 11 base pair, at least a 12base pair, at least a 13 base pair, at least a 14 base pair, at least a15 base pair, at least a 16 base pair, at least a 17 base pair, at leasta 18 base pair, at least a 19 base pair, at least a 20 base pair, atleast a 21 base pair, at least a 22 base pair, at least a 23 base pair,at least a 24 base pair, at least a 25 base pair, at least a 30 basepair, or at least a 35 base pair complementary polynucleotide sequenceof the target DNA sequence followed by NGG. The gRNA may target at leastone of the promoter region, the enhancer region or the transcribedregion of the target gene. The gRNA may include a nucleic acid sequenceof at least one of SEQ ID NOs: 5-40, 65-144, 492-515, 540-563, and585-625.

b. Methods of Repressing Gene Expression

The present disclosure provides a mechanism for repressing theexpression of endogenous genes, such as mammalian genes, based ontargeting genomic regulatory elements, such as distal enhancers, via RNAusing a CRISPR/Cas9 based system, as described above. The Cas9 fusionprotein may include a transcriptional repressor, such as the KRABrepressor. The Cas9 fusion protein may be dCas9-KRAB. The dCas9-KRAB mayadditionally affect epigenetic gene regulation by recruitingheterochromatin-forming factors to the targeted locus. TheCRISPR/dCas9-KRAB system may be used to repress the transcription ofgenes, but can also be used to target genomic regulatory elements whichwere previously inaccessible by traditional repression methods such asRNA interference (FIG. 53B). Delivering dCas9-KRAB with gRNAs targetedto a distal enhancer may disrupt expression of multiple genes regulatedby the targeted enhancer (see FIG. 53C). The targeted enhancer may beany enhancer for a gene such as the HS2 enhancer.

a. Methods of Transdifferentiation or Induced Differentiation

The present disclosure provides a mechanism for transdifferentiating orinducing differentiation of cells by activating endogenous genes via RNAusing a CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as described above.

(1) Transdifferentiation

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may be used to transdifferentiate cells.Transdifferentiation, also known as lineage reprogramming or directconversion, is a process where cells convert from one differentiatedcell type to another without undergoing an intermediate pluripotentstate or progenitor cell type. It is a type of metaplasia, whichincludes all cell fate switches, including the interconversion of stemcells. Transdifferentiation of cells has potential uses for diseasemodeling, drug discovery, gene therapy and regenerative medicine.Activation of endogenous genes, such as BRN2, MYT1L, ASCLJ, NANOG,and/or MYOD1, using the CRISPR/Cas9 based system described above maylead to transdifferentiation of several cell types, such as fibroblasts,cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, chondrocytes, mesenchymal progenitor cells,hematopoetic stem cells, or smooth muscle cells, into neuronal andmyogenic phenotypes, respectively.

(2) Inducing Differentiation

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may be used to induce differentiation ofcells, such as stem cells, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, chondrocytes,mesenchymal progenitor cells, hematopoetic stem cells, or smooth musclecells. For example, stem cells, such as embryonic stem cells orpluripotent stem cells, may be induced to differentiate into musclecells or vascular endothelial cell, i.e., induce neuronal or myogenicdifferentiation.

12. USES OF MULTIPLEX CRISPR/Cas9-BASED SYSTEM

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based System takes advantage of the simplicityand low cost of sgRNA design and may be helpful in exploiting advancesin high-throughput genomic research using CRISPR/Cas9 technology. Forexample, the single lentiviral vectors described here are useful inexpressing Cas9 and numerous sgRNAs in difficult cell lines, such asprimary fibroblasts described here (FIG. 47). The multiplexCRISPR/Cas9-Based System may be used in the same ways as theCRISPR/Cas9-Based System described above.

In addition to the described transcriptional activation and nucleasefunctionality, this system will be useful for expressing other novelCas9-based effectors that control epigenetic modifications for diversepurposes, including interrogation of genome architecture and pathways ofendogenous gene regulation. As endogenous gene regulation is a delicatebalance between multiple enzymes, multiplexing Cas9 systems withdifferent functionalities will allow for examining the complex interplayamong different regulatory signals. The vector described here should becompatible with aptamer-modified sgRNAs and orthogonal Cas9s to enableindependent genetic manipulations using a single set of sgRNAs.

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based System may be used to activate at leastone endogenous gene in a cell. The method includes contacting a cellwith the modified lentiviral vector. The endogenous gene may betransiently activated or stably activated. The endogenous gene may betransiently repressed or stably repressed. The fusion protein may beexpressed at similar levels to the sgRNAs. The fusion protein may beexpressed at different levels compared to the sgRNAs. The cell may be aprimary human cell.

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based System may be used in a method ofmultiplex gene editing in a cell. The method includes contacting a cellwith the modified lentiviral vector. The multiplex gene editing mayinclude correcting a mutant gene or inserting a transgene. Correcting amutant gene may include deleting, rearranging or replacing the mutantgene. Correcting the mutant gene may include nuclease-mediatednon-homologous end joining or homology-directed repair. The multiplexgene editing may include deleting or correcting at least one gene,wherein the gene is an endogenous normal gene or a mutant gene. Themultiplex gene editing may include deleting or correcting at least twogenes. For example, at least two genes, at least three genes, at leastfour genes, at least five genes, at least six genes, at least sevengenes, at least eight genes, at least nine genes, or at least ten genesmay be deleted or corrected.

The multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based System may be used in a method ofmultiplex modulation of gene expression in a cell. The method includescontacting a cell with the modified lentiviral vector. The method mayinclude modulating the gene expression levels of at least one gene. Thegene expression of the at least one target gene is modulated when geneexpression levels of the at least one target gene are increased ordecreased compared to normal gene expression levels for the at least onetarget gene. The gene expression levels may be RNA or protein levels.

13. METHODS OF CORRECTING A MUTANT GENE AND TREATING A SUBJECT

The present disclosure is also directed to a method of correcting amutant gene in a subject. The method comprises administering to theskeletal muscle or cardiac muscle of the subject the composition forgenome editing in skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle, as described above.Use of the composition to deliver the site-specific nuclease to theskeletal muscle or cardiac muscle may restore the expression of afull-functional or partially-functional protein with a repair templateor donor DNA, which can replace the entire gene or the region containingthe mutation. The site-specific nuclease may be used to introducesite-specific double strand breaks at targeted genomic loci.Site-specific double-strand breaks are created when the site-specificnuclease binds to a target DNA sequences, thereby permitting cleavage ofthe target DNA. This DNA cleavage may stimulate the natural DNA-repairmachinery, leading to one of two possible repair pathways:homology-directed repair (HDR) or the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)pathway.

The present disclosure is directed to genome editing with asite-specific nuclease without a repair template, which can efficientlycorrect the reading frame and restore the expression of a functionalprotein involved in a genetic disease. The disclosed site-specificnucleases may involve using homology-directed repair ornuclease-mediated non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)-based correctionapproaches, which enable efficient correction in proliferation-limitedprimary cell lines that may not be amenable to homologous recombinationor selection-based gene correction. This strategy integrates the rapidand robust assembly of active site-specific nucleases with an efficientgene editing method for the treatment of genetic diseases caused bymutations in nonessential coding regions that cause frameshifts,premature stop codons, aberrant splice donor sites or aberrant spliceacceptor sites.

a. Nuclease Mediated Non-Homologous End Joining

Restoration of protein expression from an endogenous mutated gene may bethrough template-free NHEJ-mediated DNA repair. In contrast to atransient method targeting the target gene RNA, the correction of thetarget gene reading frame in the genome by a transiently expressedsite-specific nuclease may lead to permanently restored target geneexpression by each modified cell and all of its progeny.

Nuclease mediated NHEJ gene correction may correct the mutated targetgene and offers several potential advantages over the HDR pathway. Forexample, NHEJ does not require a donor template, which may causenonspecific insertional mutagenesis. In contrast to HDR, NHEJ operatesefficiently in all stages of the cell cycle and therefore may beeffectively exploited in both cycling and post-mitotic cells, such asmuscle fibers. This provides a robust, permanent gene restorationalternative to oligonucleotide-based exon skipping or pharmacologicforced read-through of stop codons and could theoretically require asfew as one drug treatment. NHEJ-based gene correction using aCRISPR/Cas9-based system, as well as other engineered nucleasesincluding meganucleases and zinc finger nucleases, may be combined withother existing ex vivo and in vivo platforms for cell- and gene-basedtherapies, in addition to the plasmid electroporation approach describedhere. For example, delivery of a CRISPR/Cas9-based system by mRNA-basedgene transfer or as purified cell permeable proteins could enable aDNA-free genome editing approach that would circumvent any possibilityof insertional mutagenesis.

b. Homology-Directed Repair

Restoration of protein expression from an endogenous mutated gene mayinvolve homology-directed repair. The method as described above furtherincludes administrating a donor template to the cell. The donor templatemay include a nucleotide sequence encoding a full-functional protein ora partially-functional protein. For example, the donor template mayinclude a miniaturized dystrophin construct, termed minidystrophin(“minidys”), a full-functional dystrophin construct for restoring amutant dystrophin gene, or a fragment of the dystrophin gene that afterhomology-directed repair leads to restoration of the mutant dystrophingene.

c. Methods of Correcting a Mutant Gene and Treating a Subject UsingCRISPR/Cas9

The present disclosure is also directed to genome editing with theCRISPR/Cas9-based system to restore the expression of a full-functionalor partially-functional protein with a repair template or donor DNA,which can replace the entire gene or the region containing the mutation.The CRISPR/Cas9-based system may be used to introduce site-specificdouble strand breaks at targeted genomic loci. Site-specificdouble-strand breaks are created when the CRISPR/Cas9-based system bindsto a target DNA sequences using the gRNA, thereby permitting cleavage ofthe target DNA. The CRISPR/Cas9-based system has the advantage ofadvanced genome editing due to their high rate of successful andefficient genetic modification. This DNA cleavage may stimulate thenatural DNA-repair machinery, leading to one of two possible repairpathways: homology-directed repair (HDR) or the non-homologous endjoining (NHEJ) pathway. For example, a CRISPR/Cas9-based system directedtowards the dystrophin gene may include a gRNA having a nucleic acidsequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 65-115.

The present disclosure is directed to genome editing withCRISPR/Cas9-based system without a repair template, which canefficiently correct the reading frame and restore the expression of afunctional protein involved in a genetic disease. The disclosedCRISPR/Cas9-based system and methods may involve using homology-directedrepair or nuclease-mediated non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)-basedcorrection approaches, which enable efficient correction inproliferation-limited primary cell lines that may not be amenable tohomologous recombination or selection-based gene correction. Thisstrategy integrates the rapid and robust assembly of activeCRISPR/Cas9-based system with an efficient gene editing method for thetreatment of genetic diseases caused by mutations in nonessential codingregions that cause frameshifts, premature stop codons, aberrant splicedonor sites or aberrant splice acceptor sites.

The present disclosure provides methods of correcting a mutant gene in acell and treating a subject suffering from a genetic disease, such asDMD. The method may include administering to a cell or subject aCRISPR/Cas9-based system, a polynucleotide or vector encoding saidCRISPR/Cas9-based system, or composition of said CRISPR/Cas9-basedsystem as described above. The method may include administering aCRISPR/Cas9-based system, such as administering a Cas9 protein or Cas9fusion protein containing a second domain having nuclease activity, anucleotide sequence encoding said Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein,and/or at least one gRNA, wherein the gRNAs target different DNAsequences. The target DNA sequences may be overlapping. The number ofgRNA administered to the cell may be at least 1 gRNA, at least 2different gRNA, at least 3 different gRNA at least 4 different gRNA, atleast 5 different gRNA, at least 6 different gRNA, at least 7 differentgRNA, at least 8 different gRNA, at least 9 different gRNA, at least 10different gRNA, at least 15 different gRNA, at least 20 different gRNA,at least 30 different gRNA, or at least 50 different gRNA, as describedabove. The gRNA may include a nucleic acid sequence of at least one ofSEQ ID NOs: 65-115. The method may involve homology-directed repair ornon-homologous end joining.

14. METHODS OF TREATING A DISEASE

The present disclosure is directed to a method of treating a subject inneed thereof. The method comprises administering to a tissue of asubject the composition for altering gene expression and engineering oraltering genomic DNA in a cell or subject genome editing, as describedabove. The method may comprises administering to the skeletal muscle orcardiac muscle of the subject the composition for genome editing inskeletal muscle or cardiac muscle, as described above. The subject maybe suffering from a skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle condition causingdegeneration or weakness or a genetic disease. For example, the subjectmay be suffering from Duchenne muscular dystrophy, as described above.

a. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

The method, as described above, may be used for correcting thedystrophin gene and recovering full-functional or partially-functionalprotein expression of said mutated dystrophin gene. In some aspects andembodiments the disclosure provides a method for reducing the effects(e.g., clinical symptoms/indications) of DMD in a patient. In someaspects and embodiments the disclosure provides a method for treatingDMD in a patient. In some aspects and embodiments the disclosureprovides a method for preventing DMD in a patient. In some aspects andembodiments the disclosure provides a method for preventing furtherprogression of DMD in a patient.

15. CONSTRUCTS AND PLASMIDS

The compositions, as described above, may comprise genetic constructsthat encodes the CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as disclosed herein. Thegenetic construct, such as a plasmid, may comprise a nucleic acid thatencodes the CRISPR/Cas9-based system, such as the Cas9 protein and Cas9fusion proteins and/or at least one of the gRNAs. The compositions, asdescribed above, may comprise genetic constructs that encodes themodified AAV vector and a nucleic acid sequence that encodes thesite-specific nuclease, as disclosed herein. The genetic construct, suchas a plasmid, may comprise a nucleic acid that encodes the site-specificnuclease. The compositions, as described above, may comprise geneticconstructs that encodes the modified lentiviral vector, as disclosedherein. The genetic construct, such as a plasmid, may comprise a nucleicacid that encodes the Cas9-fusion protein and at least one sgRNA. Thegenetic construct may be present in the cell as a functioningextrachromosomal molecule. The genetic construct may be a linearminichromosome including centromere, telomeres or plasmids or cosmids.

The genetic construct may also be part of a genome of a recombinantviral vector, including recombinant lentivirus, recombinant adenovirus,and recombinant adenovirus associated virus. The genetic construct maybe part of the genetic material in attenuated live microorganisms orrecombinant microbial vectors which live in cells. The geneticconstructs may comprise regulatory elements for gene expression of thecoding sequences of the nucleic acid. The regulatory elements may be apromoter, an enhancer, an initiation codon, a stop codon, or apolyadenylation signal.

The nucleic acid sequences may make up a genetic construct that may be avector. The vector may be capable of expressing the fusion protein, suchas the Cas9-fusion protein or site-specific nuclease, in the cell of amammal. The vector may be recombinant. The vector may compriseheterologous nucleic acid encoding the fusion protein, such as theCas9-fusion protein or site-specific nuclease. The vector may be aplasmid. The vector may be useful for transfecting cells with nucleicacid encoding the Cas9-fusion protein or site-specific nuclease, whichthe transformed host cell is cultured and maintained under conditionswherein expression of the Cas9-fusion protein or the site-specificnuclease system takes place.

Coding sequences may be optimized for stability and high levels ofexpression. In some instances, codons are selected to reduce secondarystructure formation of the RNA such as that formed due to intramolecularbonding.

The vector may comprise heterologous nucleic acid encoding theCRISPR/Cas9-based system or the site-specific nuclease and may furthercomprise an initiation codon, which may be upstream of theCRISPR/Cas9-based system or the site-specific nuclease coding sequence,and a stop codon, which may be downstream of the CRISPR/Cas9-basedsystem or the site-specific nuclease coding sequence. The initiation andtermination codon may be in frame with the CRISPR/Cas9-based system orthe site-specific nuclease coding sequence. The vector may also comprisea promoter that is operably linked to the CRISPR/Cas9-based system orthe site-specific nuclease coding sequence. The promoter operably linkedto the CRISPR/Cas9-based system or the site-specific nuclease codingsequence may be a promoter from simian virus 40 (SV40), a mouse mammarytumor virus (MMTV) promoter, a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)promoter such as the bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) long terminalrepeat (LTR) promoter, a Moloney virus promoter, an avian leukosis virus(ALV) promoter, a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter such as the CMVimmediate early promoter, Epstein Barr virus (EBV) promoter, or a Roussarcoma virus (RSV) promoter. The promoter may also be a promoter from ahuman gene such as human ubiquitin C (hUbC), human actin, human myosin,human hemoglobin, human muscle creatine, or human metalothionein. Thepromoter may also be a tissue specific promoter, such as a muscle orskin specific promoter, natural or synthetic. Examples of such promotersare described in US Patent Application Publication No. US20040175727,the contents of which are incorporated herein in its entirety.

The vector may also comprise a polyadenylation signal, which may bedownstream of the CRISPR/Cas9-based system or the site-specificnuclease. The polyadenylation signal may be a SV40 polyadenylationsignal, LTR polyadenylation signal, bovine growth hormone (bGH)polyadenylation signal, human growth hormone (hGH) polyadenylationsignal, or human f3-globin polyadenylation signal. The SV40polyadenylation signal may be a polyadenylation signal from a pCEP4vector (Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.).

The vector may also comprise an enhancer upstream of theCRISPR/Cas9-based system, i.e., the Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion proteincoding sequence or sgRNAs, or the site-specific nuclease. The enhancermay be necessary for DNA expression. The enhancer may be human actin,human myosin, human hemoglobin, human muscle creatine or a viralenhancer such as one from CMV, HA, RSV or EBV. Polynucleotide functionenhancers are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,593,972, 5,962,428, andWO94/016737, the contents of each are fully incorporated by reference.The vector may also comprise a mammalian origin of replication in orderto maintain the vector extrachromosomally and produce multiple copies ofthe vector in a cell. The vector may also comprise a regulatorysequence, which may be well suited for gene expression in a mammalian orhuman cell into which the vector is administered. The vector may alsocomprise a reporter gene, such as green fluorescent protein (“GFP”)and/or a selectable marker, such as hygromycin (“Hygro”).

The vector may be expression vectors or systems to produce protein byroutine techniques and readily available starting materials includingSambrook et al., Molecular Cloning and Laboratory Manual, Second Ed.,Cold Spring Harbor (1989), which is incorporated fully by reference. Insome embodiments the vector may comprise the nucleic acid sequenceencoding the CRISPR/Cas9-based system, including the nucleic acidsequence encoding the Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein and thenucleic acid sequence encoding the at least one gRNA comprising thenucleic acid sequence of at least one of SEQ ID NOs: 5-40, 65-144,492-515, 540-563, and 585-625.

16. PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS

The composition may be in a pharmaceutical composition. Thepharmaceutical composition may comprise about 1 ng to about 10 mg of DNAencoding the CRISPR/Cas9-based system or CRISPR/Cas9-based systemprotein component, i.e., the Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein. Thepharmaceutical composition may comprise about 1 ng to about 10 mg of theDNA of the modified AAV vector and nucleotide sequence encoding thesite-specific nuclease. The pharmaceutical composition may compriseabout 1 ng to about 10 mg of the DNA of the modified lentiviral vector.The pharmaceutical compositions according to the present invention areformulated according to the mode of administration to be used. In caseswhere pharmaceutical compositions are injectable pharmaceuticalcompositions, they are sterile, pyrogen free and particulate free. Anisotonic formulation is preferably used. Generally, additives forisotonicity may include sodium chloride, dextrose, mannitol, sorbitoland lactose. In some cases, isotonic solutions such as phosphatebuffered saline are preferred. Stabilizers include gelatin and albumin.In some embodiments, a vasoconstriction agent is added to theformulation.

The composition may further comprise a pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient. The pharmaceutically acceptable excipient may be functionalmolecules as vehicles, adjuvants, carriers, or diluents. Thepharmaceutically acceptable excipient may be a transfection facilitatingagent, which may include surface active agents, such asimmune-stimulating complexes (ISCOMS), Freunds incomplete adjuvant, LPSanalog including monophosphoryl lipid A, muramyl peptides, quinoneanalogs, vesicles such as squalene and squalene, hyaluronic acid,lipids, liposomes, calcium ions, viral proteins, polyanions,polycations, or nanoparticles, or other known transfection facilitatingagents.

The transfection facilitating agent is a polyanion, polycation,including poly-L-glutamate (LGS), or lipid. The transfectionfacilitating agent is poly-L-glutamate, and more preferably, thepoly-L-glutamate is present in the composition for genome editing inskeletal muscle or cardiac muscle at a concentration less than 6 mg/ml.The transfection facilitating agent may also include surface activeagents such as immune-stimulating complexes (ISCOMS), Freunds incompleteadjuvant, LPS analog including monophosphoryl lipid A, muramyl peptides,quinone analogs and vesicles such as squalene and squalene, andhyaluronic acid may also be used administered in conjunction with thegenetic construct. In some embodiments, the DNA vector encoding thecomposition may also include a transfection facilitating agent such aslipids, liposomes, including lecithin liposomes or other liposomes knownin the art, as a DNA-liposome mixture (see for example W09324640),calcium ions, viral proteins, polyanions, polycations, or nanoparticles,or other known transfection facilitating agents. Preferably, thetransfection facilitating agent is a polyanion, polycation, includingpoly-L-glutamate (LGS), or lipid.

17. METHODS OF DELIVERY

Provided herein is a method for delivering the pharmaceuticalformulations, preferably compositions described above, for providinggenetic constructs. The delivery of the compositions may be thetransfection or electroporation of the composition as a nucleic acidmolecule that is expressed in the cell and delivered to the surface ofthe cell. The nucleic acid molecules may be electroporated using BioRadGene Pulser Xcell or Amaxa Nucleofector IIb devices. Several differentbuffers may be used, including BioRad electroporation solution, Sigmaphosphate-buffered saline product # D8537 (PBS), Invitrogen OptiMEM I(OM), or Amaxa Nucleofector solution V (N. V.). Transfections mayinclude a transfection reagent, such as Lipofectamine 2000.

Upon delivery of the composition to the tissue, and thereupon the vectorinto the cells of the mammal, the transfected cells will express thefusion protein, such as a CRISPR/Cas9-based system and/or asite-specific nuclease. The composition may be administered to a mammalto alter gene expression or to re-engineer or alter the genome. Forexample, the composition may be administered to a mammal to correct thedystrophin gene in a mammal. The mammal may be human, non-human primate,cow, pig, sheep, goat, antelope, bison, water buffalo, bovids, deer,hedgehogs, elephants, llama, alpaca, mice, rats, or chicken, andpreferably human, cow, pig, or chicken.

a. CRISPR/Cas9-Based System

The vector encoding a CRISPR/Cas9-based system protein component, i.e.,the Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein, may be delivered to the mammalby DNA injection (also referred to as DNA vaccination) with and withoutin vivo electroporation, liposome mediated, nanoparticle facilitated,and/or recombinant vectors. The recombinant vector may be delivered byany viral mode. The viral mode may be recombinant lentivirus,recombinant adenovirus, and/or recombinant adeno-associated virus.

The nucleotide encoding a CRISPR/Cas9-based system protein component,i.e., the Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein, may be introduced into acell to genetically correct the target gene or alter gene expression ofa gene, such as activate or repress endogenous genes. For example, anucleotide encoding a CRISPR/Cas9-based system protein component, i.e.,the Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein, directed towards a mutantdystrophin gene by the gRNA may be introduced into a myoblast cell froma DMD patient. Alternatively, they may be introduced into a fibroblastcell from a DMD patient, and the genetically corrected fibroblast cellmay be treated with MyoD to induce differentiation into myoblasts, whichmay be implanted into subjects, such as the damaged muscles of a subjectto verify that the corrected dystrophin protein was functional and/or totreat the subject. The modified cells may also be stem cells, such asinduced pluripotent stem cells, bone marrow-derived progenitors,skeletal muscle progenitors, human skeletal myoblasts from DMD patients,CD133+ cells, mesoangioblasts, and MyoD- or Pax7-transduced cells, orother myogenic progenitor cells. For example, the CRISPR/Cas9-basedsystem may cause neuronal or myogenic differentiation of an inducedpluripotent stem cell.

18. ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION

The compositions may be administered to a subject by different routesincluding orally, parenterally, sublingually, transdermally, rectally,transmucosally, topically, via inhalation, via buccal administration,intrapleurally, intravenous, intraarterial, intraperitoneal,subcutaneous, intramuscular, intranasal intrathecal, and intraarticularor combinations thereof. For veterinary use, the composition may beadministered as a suitably acceptable formulation in accordance withnormal veterinary practice. The veterinarian may readily determine thedosing regimen and route of administration that is most appropriate fora particular animal. The compositions may be administered by traditionalsyringes, needleless injection devices, “microprojectile bombardmentgone guns”, or other physical methods such as electroporation (“EP”),“hydrodynamic method”, or ultrasound.

The composition may be delivered to the mammal by several technologiesincluding DNA injection (also referred to as DNA vaccination) with andwithout in vivo electroporation, liposome mediated, nanoparticlefacilitated, recombinant vectors such as recombinant lentivirus,recombinant adenovirus, and recombinant adenovirus associated virus. Thecomposition may be injected into the skeletal muscle or cardiac muscle.For example, the composition may be injected into the tibialis anteriormuscle.

19. CELL TYPES

Any of these delivery methods and/or routes of administration could beutilized with a myriad of cell types, for example, those cell typescurrently under investigation for cell-based therapies. Cell types maybe fibroblasts, pluripotent stem cells, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes,chondrocytes, mesenchymal progenitor cells, hematopoetic stem cells,smooth muscle cells, or K562 human erythroid leukemia cell line.

a. DMD

Cell types currently under investigation for cell-based therapies of DMDinclude immortalized myoblast cells, such as wild-type and DMD patientderived lines, for example 448-50 DMD, DMD 8036 (de148-50), C25C14 andDMD-7796 cell lines, primal DMD dermal fibroblasts, induced pluripotentstem cells, bone marrow-derived progenitors, skeletal muscleprogenitors, human skeletal myoblasts from DMD patients, CD133+ cells,mesoangioblasts, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, chondrocytes, mesenchymalprogenitor cells, hematopoetic stem cells, smooth muscle cells, andMyoD- or Pax7-transduced cells, or other myogenic progenitor cells.Immortalization of human myogenic cells may be used for clonalderivation of genetically corrected myogenic cells. Cells may bemodified ex vivo to isolate and expand clonal populations ofimmortalized DMD myoblasts that contain a genetically correcteddystrophin gene and are free of other nuclease-introduced mutations inprotein coding regions of the genome. Alternatively, transient in vivodelivery of nucleases by non-viral or non-integrating viral genetransfer, or by direct delivery of purified proteins and gRNAscontaining cell-penetrating motifs may enable highly specific correctionin situ with minimal or no risk of exogenous DNA integration.

20. KITS

Provided herein is a kit, which may be used to edit a genome in skeletalmuscle or cardiac muscle, such as correcting a mutant gene. The kitcomprises a composition for genome editing in skeletal muscle or cardiacmuscle, as described above, and instructions for using said composition.Instructions included in kits may be affixed to packaging material ormay be included as a package insert. While the instructions aretypically written or printed materials they are not limited to such. Anymedium capable of storing such instructions and communicating them to anend user is contemplated by this disclosure. Such media include, but arenot limited to, electronic storage media (e.g., magnetic discs, tapes,cartridges, chips), optical media (e.g., CD ROM), and the like. As usedherein, the term “instructions” may include the address of an internetsite that provides the instructions.

The composition for genome editing in skeletal muscle or cardiac musclemay include a modified AAV vector and a nucleotide sequence encoding asite-specific nuclease, as described above. The site-specific nucleasemay include a ZFN, a TALEN, or CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as describedabove, that specifically binds and cleaves a mutated gene. Thesite-specific nuclease, as described above, may be included in the kitto specifically bind and target a particular region in the mutated gene.The site-specific nuclease may be specific for a mutated dystrophingene, as described above. The kit may further include donor DNA, a gRNA,or a transgene, as described above.

a. CRISPR/Cas9-Based System

Provided herein is a kit, which may be used to correct a mutated gene.The kit comprises at least one component for correcting a mutated geneand instructions for using the CRISPR/Cas9-based system. Instructionsincluded in kits may be affixed to packaging material or may be includedas a package insert. While the instructions are typically written orprinted materials they are not limited to such. Any medium capable ofstoring such instructions and communicating them to an end user iscontemplated by this disclosure. Such media include, but are not limitedto, electronic storage media (e.g., magnetic discs, tapes, cartridges,chips), optical media (e.g., CD ROM), and the like. As used herein, theterm “instructions” may include the address of an internet site thatprovides the instructions.

At least one component may include at least one CRISPR/Cas9-basedsystem, as described above, which specifically targets a gene. The kitmay include a Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein, a nucleotide sequenceencoding said Cas9 protein or Cas9 fusion protein, and/or at least onegRNA. The CRISPR/Cas9-based system, as described above, may be includedin the kit to specifically bind and target a particular target regionupstream, within or downstream of the coding region of the target gene.For example, a CRISPR/Cas9-based system may be specific for a promoterregion of a target gene or a CRISPR/Cas9-based system may be specificfor a mutated gene, for example a mutated dystrophin gene, as describedabove. The kit may include donor DNA, as described above.

21. EXAMPLES

It will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art that othersuitable modifications and adaptations of the methods of the presentdisclosure described herein are readily applicable and appreciable, andmay be made using suitable equivalents without departing from the scopeof the present disclosure or the aspects and embodiments disclosedherein. Having now described the present disclosure in detail, the samewill be more clearly understood by reference to the following examples,which are merely intended only to illustrate some aspects andembodiments of the disclosure, and should not be viewed as limiting tothe scope of the disclosure. The disclosures of all journal references,U.S. patents, and publications referred to herein are herebyincorporated by reference in their entireties.

The present invention has multiple aspects, illustrated by the followingnon-limiting examples.

Example 1 Materials and Methods

Cell culture and transfection. HEK293T cells were obtained from theAmerican Tissue Collection Center (ATCC) through the Duke UniversityCancer Center Facilities and were maintained in DMEM supplemented with10% fetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin/streptomycin at 37° C. with 5%CO₂. HEK293T cells were transfected with Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen)according to manufacturer's instructions. Transfection efficiencies wereroutinely higher than 80% as determined by fluorescence microscopyfollowing delivery of a control eGFP expression plasmid. Cas9 expressionplasmid was transfected at a mass ratio of 3:1 to either the individualgRNA expression plasmids or the identical amount of gRNA expressionplasmid consisting of a mixture of equal amounts of the four gRNAs.

Primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (PMEF-HL, Millipore, Billerica,MASS.A) were seeded (75,000 per well) in 24-well TCPS plates (BD,Franklin Lakes, N.J.) and maintained at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ in completeMEF medium consisting of high glucose DMEM supplemented with 10% PremiumSelect FBS (Atlanta Biologicals, Lawrenceville, Ga.), 25 μg mL⁻¹genmtamicin (Invitrogen), 1× GlutaMAX, non-essential amino acids, sodiumpyruvate, and β-mercaptoethanol (Invitrogen). MEF transfections wereperformed with a single 1 μg cm⁻² dose of total plasmid DNA, deliveredas cationic nanocomplexes following electrostatic condensation withpoly(CBA-ABOL) in serum- and antibiotic-free OptiMEM, as describedpreviously (Adler et al. Molecular therapy. Nucleic acids 1, e32(2012)). OptiMEM was replaced with complete MEF medium 4 hrs aftertransfection. 48 hrs after transfection, MEFs were processed forqRT-PCR, or the complete MEF medium was replaced with N3 neuralinduction medium containing: DMEM/F-12 (Invitrogen), 1× N-2 Supplement(Invitrogen), 10 ng mL⁻¹ human bFGF2 (Stemgent, Cambridge, Mass.), and25 μg mL⁻¹ gentamicin (Invitrogen). A GFP reporter vector (pmax-GFP,3486 bp, Amaxa, Cologne, Germany) was used to optimize transfectionconditions. Cas9 expression plasmid was transfected at a mass ratio of3:1 or 1:1 to an equal mixture of four gRNA expression plasmids.

Plasmids. The plasmids encoding wild-type and H840A Cas9 were obtainedfrom Addgene (Plasmid #39312 and Plasmid #39316; Jinek, et al. Science337, 816-821 (2012)). H840A Cas9 was cloned into the vector pcDNA3.1 inframe with a FLAG epitope tag and a nuclear localization sequence (NLS)at the N-terminus with a primer pair that introduced the D10A mutation.The VP64 domain, an NLS, and an HA epitope tag were cloned in frame withthe Cas9 ORF at the C-terminus (FIG. 1A, FIG. 9A). The tracrRNA andcrRNA expression cassettes (Cong et al. Science 339, 819-823 (2013))were ordered as gBlocks (Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT)) and clonedinto a pZDonor plasmid (Sigma) with KpnI and SacII sites. A chimericguide RNA expression cassette (Mali et al. Science 339, 823-826 (2013))was also ordered as gBlocks with modifications to include a BbsIrestriction site to facilitate rapid cloning of new guide RNA spacersequences (FIG. 9B). The oligonucleotides containing the targetsequences were obtained from IDT, hybridized, phosphorylated, and clonedin the appropriate plasmids using BbsI sites. The target sequences areprovided in Table 2.

TABLE 2 Target sequences of gRNAs SEQ ID Target Name Sequence NO ASCL1CR1 GCTGGGTGTCCCATTGAAA  5 CR2 CAGCCGCTCGCTGCAGCAG  6 CR3TGGAGAGTTTGCAAGGAGC  7 CR4 GTTTATTCAGCCGGGAGTC  8 NANOG CR1CGCCAGGAGGGGTGGGTCTA  9 CR2 CCTTGGTGAGACTGGTAGA 10 CR3GTCTTCAGGTTCTGTTGCT 11 CR4 ATATTCCTGATTTAAAAGT 12 VEGFA CR1TTAAAAGTCGGCTGGTAGC 13 CR2 CGGGCCGGGGGCGGGGTCC 14 CR3GCCCGAGCCGCGTGTGGAA 15 CR4 CCTTCATTGCGGCGGGCTG 16 TERT CR1CCGACCCCTCCCGGGTCCC 17 CR2 CAGGACCGCGCTTCCCACG 18 CR3TGCACCCTGGGAGCGCGAG 19 CR4 CCGCACGCACCTGTTCCCA 20 IL1B CR1AAAACAGCGAGGGAGAAAC 21 CR2 TTAACTTGATTGTGAAATC 22 CR3AAAACAATGCATATTTGCA 23 CR4 AAAATCCAGTATTTTAATG 24 IL1R2 CR1ACCCAGCACTGCAGCCTGG 25 CR2 AACTTATGCGGCGTTTCCT 26 CR3TCACTTTAAAACCACCTCT 27 CR4 GCATCTTTTTCTCTTTAAT 28 IL1RN CR1TGTACTCTCTGAGGTGCTC 29 CR2 ACGCAGATAAGAACCAGTT 30 CR3CATCAAGTCAGCCATCAGC 31 CR4 GAGTCACCCTCCTGGAAAC 32 HBG1/2 CR1GCTAGGGATGAAGAATAAA 33 CR2 TTGACCAATAGCCTTGACA 34 CR3TGCAAATATCTGTCTGAAA 35 CR4 AAATTAGCAGTATCCTCTT 36 MYOD1 CR1CCTGGGCTCCGGGGCGTTT 37 CR2 GGCCCCTGCGGCCACCCCG 38 CR3CTCCCTCCCTGCCCGGTAG 39 CR4 AGGTTTGGAAAGGGCGTGC 40

Western blot. Cells were lysed in 50 mM Tris-Cl (pH 7.4), 150 mM NaCl,0.5% Triton X-100, and 0.1% SDS. Lysates were mixed with loading buffer,boiled for 5 min, and equal volumes of protein were run in NuPAGE® Novex4-12% or 10% Bis-Tris Gel polyacrylamide gels and transferred tonitrocellulose membranes. Non-specific antibody binding was blocked with50 mM Tris/150 mM NaCl/0.1% Tween-20 (TB S-T) with 5% nonfat milk for 30min. The membranes were incubated with primary antibodies(HRP-conjugated anti-Flag (Cell Signaling, Cat #2044) in 5% BSA in TBS-Tdiluted 1:1000 overnight; anti-GAPDH (Cell Signaling, clone 14C10) in 5%milk in TB S-T diluted 1:5000 for 30 min; anti-ASCL1 (Santa Cruz, clonesc-48449) in 5% BSA diluted 1:500; or anti-g-globin (Santa Cruz, clone51-7) in 5% milk diluted 1:500 and the membranes were washed with TB S-Tfor 30 min. Membranes labeled with primary antibodies were incubatedwith anti-rabbit HRP-conjugated antibody (Sigma-Aldrich) diluted 1:5000for 30 min, anti-goat (1:3000) or anti-mouse (1:5000) and washed withTBS-T for 30 min. Membranes were visualized using the Immun-StarWesternC™ Chemiluminescence Kit (Bio-Rad) and images were captured usinga ChemiDoc™ XRS+ System and processed using ImageLab software (Bio-Rad).

ELISA. Serum-free culture media (OPTI-MEM) was collected and frozen at−80° C. Human IL-1ra secretion into culture media was quantified viaenzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), according to themanufacturer's protocols (R&D Systems, Cat. No. DY280).

The standard curve was prepared by diluting recombinant human IL-1ra inOPTI-MEM and the IL-1ra in culture media was measured undiluted. Thesamples were concentrated about 8 fold via centrifugation through 3 kDaMWCO filters for 20 min (Amicon Ultra, Cat # UFC500396). Reported valueswere corrected by the concentration factor for each sample.

Optical density was measured at 450 nm, with a wavelength correction at540 nm. Each standard and sample was assayed in duplicate. The duplicatereadings were averaged and normalized by subtracting the average zerostandard optical density. A standard curve was generated bylog-transforming the data and performing a linear regression of theIL-1ra concentration versus the optical density. Reported values are themean and standard error of the mean from three independent experiments(n=3) that were performed on different days with technical duplicatesthat were averaged for each experiment.

qRT-PCR. Total RNA was isolated using the RNeasy Plus RNA isolation kit(Qiagen). cDNA synthesis was performed using the SuperScript® VILO™ cDNASynthesis Kit (Invitrogen). Real-time PCR using PerfeCTa® SYBR® GreenFastMix was performed with the CFX96 Real-Time PCR Detection System(Bio-Rad) with oligonucleotide primers reported in Table 3 that weredesigned using Primer3Plus software and purchased from IDT.

TABLE 3 Sequences of primers used for qRT-PCR. SEQ SEQ ID ID TargetForward Primer NO Reverse Primer NO hASCL1 GGAGCTTCTCGACT 41AACGCCACTGACAAGAAAGC 53 TCACCA NANOG GATTTGTGGGCCTG 42CAGATCCATGGAGGAAGGAA 54 AAGAAA VEGF4 AAGGAGGAGGGCAG 43GGGTACTCCTGGAAGATGTCC 55 AATCAT TERT AAACCTTCCTCAGC 44GTTTGCGACGCATGTTCCTC 56 TATGCCC IL1B AGCTGATGGCCCTA 45AAGCCCTTGCTGTAGTGGTG 57 AACAGA IL1R2 CAGGAGGACTCTGG 46CGGCAGGAAAGCATCTGTAT 58 CACCTA IL1RN GGAATCCATGGAGG 47TGTTCTCGCTCAGGTCAGTG 59 GAAGAT HBG1/2 GCTGAGTGAACTGC 48GAATTCTTTGCCGAAATGGA 60 ACTGTGA MYOD1 CTCTCTGCTCCTTT 49GTGCTCTTCGGGTTTCAGGA 61 GCCACA GAPDH CAATGACCCCTTCA 50TTGATTTTGGAGGGATCTCG 62 TTGACC mASCL1 GGAACAAGAGCTGC 51GTTTTTCTGCCTCCCCATTT 63 TGGACT mGAPDH AACTTTGGCATTGT 52GGATGCAGGGATGATGITCT 64 GGAAGG

Primer specificity was confirmed by agarose gel electrophoresis andmelting curve analysis. Reaction efficiencies over the appropriatedynamic range were calculated to ensure linearity of the standard curve(FIG. 10). The results are expressed as fold-increase mRNA expression ofthe gene of interest normalized to GAPDH expression by the ΔΔC_(T)method. Reported values are the mean and standard error of the mean fromthree independent experiments performed on different days (n=3) withtechnical duplicates that were averaged for each experiment.

RNA-Seq. RNA seq libraries were constructed. Briefly, first strand cDNAwas synthesized from oligo dT Dynabead® (Invitrogen) captured mRNA usingSuperScript® VILO™ cDNA Synthesis Kit (Invitrogen). Second strand cDNAwas synthesized using DNA Polymerase I (New England Biolabs). cDNA waspurified using Agencourt AMPure XP beads (Beckman Coulter) and Nexteratransposase (Illumina; 5 min at 55° C.) was used to simultaneouslyfragment and insert sequencing primers into the double-stranded cDNA.Transposition reactions were halted using QG buffer (Qiagen) andfragmented cDNA was purified on AMPure XP beads. Indexed sequencinglibraries were generated by 6 cycles of PCR.

Libraries were sequenced using 50-bp single end reads on two lanes of anIllumina HiSeq 2000 instrument, generating between 29 million and 74million reads per library. Reads were aligned to human RefSeqtranscripts using Bowtie (Langmead et al. Genome biology 10, R25(2009)). The statistical significance of differential expression,including correction for multiple hypothesis testing, was calculatedusing DESeq (Anders et al. Genome biology 11, R106 (2010)). Raw RNA-seqreads and the number of reads aligned to each RefSeq transcript havebeen deposited for public access in the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO),with accession number currently pending.

Immunofluorescence staining. For detection of Tuj 1 and MAP2 expression,transfected MEFs were fixed at day 10 of culture in N3 medium with 4%PFA (EMS, Hatfield, Pa.) at room temperature (RT) for 20 min. Cells werethen incubated in blocking buffer containing 0.2% Triton X-100, 3% w/vBSA, and 10% goat serum (Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, Mo.) for two hrs atroom temperature with rabbit anti-Tuj 1 (Covance, Princeton, N.J., cloneTUJ1 1-15-79, 1:500) and mouse anti-MAP2 (BD, clone Ap20, 1:500), or foran additional 24 hrs at 4° C. with mouse anti-Ascl1 (BD clone24B72D11.1, 1:100). The cells were then washed three times with PBS,incubated for 1 hr at room temperature in blocking buffer with AlexaFluor 488 goat anti-mouse IgG and Alexa Fluor 594 goat anti-rabbit IgG(Invitrogen, 1:200), and washed three times with PBS. Stained MEFs werethen scanned with a Nikon Eclipse TE2000-U inverted fluorescencemicroscope with a ProScanII motorized stage (Prior Scientific, Rockland,Mass.) to produce large mosaic images of each complete culture area.These mosaics were processed with a FIJI macro to automatically anduniformly threshold each image according to local contrast, excludesmall debris, and to count the number of Tuj1⁺ cells in each well.

Statistics. Statistical analysis was performed by Tukey's test withalpha equal to 0.05 in JMP 10 Pro.

Example 2 Results

To create a CRISPR/Cas9-based transcriptional activation system,catalytic residues of Cas9 (D10A, H840A) were mutated to create iCas9and genetically fused with a C-terminal VP64 acidic transactivationdomain (FIGS. 1A and 1B). Robust expression of iCas9-VP64 was observedfrom the transfected plasmid in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293T cellsby western blot of the N-terminal Flag epitope tag (FIG. 3). The CRISPRsystem recognizes its target through base pairing of a 20 bp sequence inthe gRNA to a complementary DNA target, which is followed by the NGGprotospacer-adjacent motif (PAM) sequence, where N is any base pair.Combinations of synthetic transcription factors targeted to endogenoushuman promoters result in synergistic and robust activation of geneexpression. Therefore four gRNA target sites followed by the NGG PAMsequence were identified in the promoter of the IL1RN gene within 500 bpof the transcriptional start site (FIG. 4, Table 2). To compare crRNA-and gRNA-based targeting strategies, the four target site sequences wereintroduced into crRNA and gRNA expression plasmids¹⁷ and co-transfectedwith the iCas9-VP64 expression plasmid into HEK293T cells. Althoughsubstantial induction of IL1RN expression was observed by qRT-PCR insamples treated with the combination of crRNAs, much higher levels wereachieved with the combination of gRNAs (FIG. 1C). No changes to geneexpression were observed in cells treated with gRNAs and an expressionplasmid for iCas9 without VP64, demonstrating the critical role of theactivation domain in modulating gene expression (FIG. 1C). Nucleaseactivity at these target sites was confirmed to have been abrogated inthe iCas9-VP64 system by performing the Surveyor assay to detect DNArepair events in samples treated with iCas9-VP64 and wild-type Cas9(FIG. 5). By transfecting each of the four gRNAs individually or incombination, targeting multiple sites in the promoter with combinationsof gRNAs showed robust increases in gene expression (FIG. 1D). Highlevels of IL1RN expression were observed only when the gRNA combinationswere co-transfected with iCas9-VP64 (FIG. 1D), as seen with otherclasses of engineered transcription factors. Similarly, production ofthe IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) protein, encoded by the IL1RNgene, was only observed in three of the six samples treated with thecombination of gRNAs across three different experiments, whereas it wasnever detected in samples treated with single gRNAs or control plasmid(FIG. 1E). To examine the specificity of gene activation by iCas9-VP64,global gene expression of HEK293T cells treated with the combination offour gRNAs by RNA-seq was assessed (FIG. 1F). Notably, the only geneswith significantly increased expression relative to control (falsediscovery rate≤3×10⁻⁴) were the four isoforms expressed from the IL1RNlocus (FIG. 4), indicating a high level of specificity of geneactivation.

To demonstrate the general applicability of this system, four gRNAs weredesigned to target each of the promoters of eight other genes relevantto medicine and biotechnology, including ASCL1, NANOG, HBG1/2,MY0D1,VEGFA, TERT, IL1B, and IL1R2 (FIG. 4, Table 2). Forced expression ofASCL1 and MYOD1 leads to transdifferentiation of several cell types intoneuronal and myogenic phenotypes, respectively. NANOG is a marker ofpluripotency and that is also used in genetic reprogramming strategies.Activation of the homologs HBG1 and HBG2, which encode γ-globin duringfetal development, can be used as a therapeutic strategy to compensatefor β-globin mutations in sickle cell disease. Up-regulation of VEGFA bysynthetic transcription factors has been explored as a strategy toenhance tissue regeneration and wound healing. The forced expression oftelomerase, encoded by the TERT gene, can be used to immortalize celllines. IL1B encodes the IL-1β cytokine that mediates inflammation andautoimmunity. IL-1β signaling can be blocked by expression of IL-1ra orthe decoy receptor encoded by IL1R2. Expression of each of these geneswas enhanced by co-transfection of expression plasmids for iCas9-VP64and the four gRNAs into HEK293T cells, as determined by qRT-PCR (FIGS.2A-2H). In some cases expression of a single gRNA was sufficient toinduce gene expression, but in all cases co-transfection of the fourgRNAs led to synergistic effects (FIGS. 2A-2D). Notably, chromatinaccessibility, as determined by DNase-seq, was not a predictor ofsuccessful gene activation (FIG. 4). RNA-seq was performed on cellstransfected with iCas9-VP64 and the four gRNAs targeting HBG1, three ofwhich also target HBG2. This revealed specific and reproducibleincreases in expression of both HBG1 and HBG2, which cannot bedistinguished by RNA-seq, although statistical significance was notachieved due to low total expression levels (FIG. 6). Increases inprotein expression of Ascl1 and γ-globin following treatment withiCas9-VP64 and the four gRNAs were detected by western blot (FIG. 7),corroborating higher mRNA levels observed by qRT-PCR (FIGS. 2A-2H). Lowbaseline levels of Ascl1 and γ-globin protein expression were detectablein empty vector controls. As preliminary evidence that the activation ofgene targets by iCas9-VP64 can lead to secondary changes in genenetworks and cell phenotypes, expression plasmids for iCas9-VP64 and thefour gRNAs targeting ASCL1 were co-transfected into murine embryonicfibroblasts (MEFs) (FIGS. 8A-8H). Forced expression of Ascl1 in MEFs hasbeen shown to partially activate the neuronal gene network, includingthe downstream target Tuj 1. Because the gRNA target sites are conservedin the human and mouse ASCL1 promoters (FIG. 8A), activation of ASCL1expression was also observed in MEFs treated with plasmids encodingiCas9-VP64 and the four gRNAs (FIG. 8B). Furthermore, cells expressingAscl1 and the neuronal marker Tuj 1 were readily detected byimmunofluorescence staining 12 days after transfection in theiCas9-VP64/gRNA-treated samples (FIGS. 8C-8H). No Tuj1-positive cellswere observed in the cells treated with the control plasmid.

Thus far there has not been any comprehensive survey of the specificityof Cas9/CRISPR activity in mammalian cells. Using RNA-seq, targeted geneactivation was shown to be exquisitely specific with no detectableoff-target gene activation (FIG. 1F, FIG. 6). IL1RN and HBG1/2 werechosen for this specificity analysis as the gene products, IL-1ra andγ-globin, may not generate secondary effects on gene expression inHEK293T cells. Exploiting the synergistic activity of multiple weaktranscriptional activators, in contrast to using a single strongactivator, may increase specific gene regulation since it is unlikelythat multiple adjacent off-target sites would exist at another locus.Interestingly, the IL32 gene was moderately downregulated (falsediscovery rate <0.03) in both the samples treated with iCas9-VP64 andeither the IL1RN- or HBG1/2-targeted gRNAs compared to control samplestreated with only an empty expression plasmid (FIG. 1F, FIG. 6). Becauseboth the IL1RN and HBG1/2-targeted samples were similarly affected, itis unlikely that this is the result of off-target iCas9-VP64 activityrelated to the identity of the target sequences.

To evaluate the specificity with which iCas9-VP64 binds the genome, ChIPsequencing was performed using an anti-HA antibody on cells treated withiCas9-VP64 and four gRNAs targeting the IL1RN promoter. The experimentrevealed that iCas9 targets the IL1RN promoter (FIG. 15). Moreover, theexperiment revealed an extremely high level of specificity. The iCas9had only 10 potential off-target binding sites (FDR<5%). To furtherquery the specificity, RNA sequencing experiments were performed withiCas9 EGEMs and found that only IL1RN gene isoforms increased inexpression relative to control (FDR≤3×10.4).

Example 3 CRISPRs Targeting the Dystrophin Gene—Methods and Materials

Plasmid constructs. The expression cassettes for the S. pyogenes sgRNAand human codon optimized Cas9 (hCas9) nuclease were used, as previouslydescribed (Perez-Pinera et al., Nat Methods 10:973-976 (2013)). In orderto create a fluorescent reporter system to enrich CRISPR/Cas9-modifiedcells, a GeneBlock (IDT) was synthesized containing a portion of the 3′end of the Cas9 coding sequence fused to a T2A skipping peptideimmediately upstream of a multiple cloning site and subsequently clonedinto the hCas9 expression vector. An eGFP reporter gene was then clonedinto the T2A vector to allow co-translation of Cas9 and eGFP proteinsfrom the same expression vector (hCas9-T2A-GFP, SEQ ID NO: 116).

Cell culture and transfection. HEK293T cells were obtained from theAmerican Tissue Collection Center (ATCC) through the Duke Cell CultureFacility and were maintained in DMEM supplemented with 10% bovine calfserum and 1% penicillin/streptomycin. Immortalized myoblasts (Mamchaoui,K. et al. Skelet Muscle 1, 1-11 (2011)) (one from a wild-type donor, andtwo Δ48-50 DMD patient derived lines) were maintained in skeletal musclemedia (PromoCell) supplemented with 20% bovine calf serum (Sigma), 50μg/ml fetuin, 10 ng/ml human epidermal growth factor (Sigma), 1 ng/mlhuman basic fibroblast growth factor (Sigma), 10 μg/ml human insulin(Sigma), 1% GlutaMAX (Invitrogen), and 1% penicillin/streptomycin(Invitrogen). Primary DMD dermal fibroblasts were obtained from theCoriell Cell repository (GM05162A, Δ46-50) and maintained in DMEMsupplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 1 ng/mL human basic fibroblastgrowth factor, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin. All cell lines weremaintained at 37° C. and 5% CO₂.

HEK293T cells were transfected with Lipofectamine 2000 (Invitrogen) with400 ng of each expression vector according to the manufacturer'sprotocol in 24 well plates. Immortalized myoblasts and primaryfibroblasts were transfected with 5 μg of each expression vector byelectroporation using the Gene Pulser XCell (BioRad) with PBS as anelectroporation buffer using optimized conditions for each line (FIGS.1A-1F) (Ousterout et al. Mol Ther 21:1718-1726 (2013)). Transfectionefficiencies were measured by delivering an eGFP expression plasmid(pmaxGFP, Clontech) and using flow cytometry. These efficiencies wereroutinely≥95% for HEK293T and >70% for the primary fibroblasts andimmortalized myoblasts. For all experiments, the indicated mass ofelectroporated plasmid corresponds to the amount used for eachCRISPR/Cas9-based system.

Cel-I quantification of endogenous gene modification (Surveyor Assay).CRISPR/Cas9-based system-induced lesions at the endogenous target sitewere quantified using the Surveyor nuclease assay (Guschin, D. Y. et al.Meth Mol Biol 649, 247-256 (2010)), which can detect mutationscharacteristic of nuclease-mediated NHEJ. After transfection, cells wereincubated for 3 or 10 days at 37° C. and genomic DNA was extracted usingthe DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit (QIAGEN). The target locus was amplifiedby 35 cycles of PCR with the AccuPrime High Fidelity PCR kit(Invitrogen) using primers specific to each locus (see Table 4), such as5′-GAGTTTGGCTCAAATTGTTACTCTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 626) and5′-GGGAAATGGTCTAGGAGAGTAAAGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 627).

TABLE 4Summary of top 10 off target sites predicted in silico and activity at each site as detected by the Surveyor assay in HEK293T cellstransfected with Cas9 and the indicated sgRNA expression cassettes.n.d.: not detected. SEQ ID Intron/ # % NO. Guide Target Sequence PAMScore Chr Gene Exon MMS indels  67 CR3 Guide GCCTACTCAGACTGTTACTC — — —— — — — 150 Target tCCTACTCAGACTGTTACTC TGG — X DMD Exon 1 13.0 151 OT1tCCTACTCAcACTGTTACTC AGG 7.4  1 STRIP1 Intron 2  9.3 152 OT2aCCTgCTCAcACTGTTACTC CAG 2.5  2 ARHGAP25 Intron 3 n.d. 153 OT3GCaTtCTCAaACTGTTACTC AGG 2.4 13 None None 3 n.d. 154 OT4GgaTtCTCAcACTGTTACTC GGG 1.3 14 PGPEP1 Exon 4 n.d. 155 OT5aCaTACTtAtACTGTTACTC TAG 1.3 19 MDGA2 Intron 4 n.d. 156 OT6tatTcCTaAGACTGTTACTC AAG 0.9  8 LPPR1 Intron 5 n.d. 157 OT7aaggACTaAGACTGTTACTC GGG 0.9  9 RNF122 Intron 5 n.d. 158 OT8GagctCTCAtACTGTTACTC TAG 0.8  3 DNMBP Exon 5 n.d. 159 OT9GCaaAaTgAGACTGTTACTC CAG 0.8  5 SLC12A2 Intron 4 n.d. 160 OT10cCtcAtTCAGACTGTTACTC AAG 0.8  4 KCNIP4 Intron 4 n.d.  65 CR1 GuideGATTGGCTTTGATTTCCCTA — — — — — — — 161 Target cATTGGCTTTGATTTCCCTA GGG —X DMD Intron 1  8.3 162 OT1 aATTGGCATTGATTTCCCTA GAG 7.1 16 None None 2 0.8 163 OT2 cATTGGCTTTaATTTCCCTA TAG 4.8  4 None None 2 n.d. 164 OT3GATaGGCTgTGATTTCCCTA GAG 3.9  9 None None 2 n.d. 165 OT4GAaTaGCcTTGATTTCCCTA AAG 2.4  1 None None 3 n.d. 166 OT5aATTtGCTTTGATTTCCCTg AGG 1.5  1 TIMM17A Intron 3 n.d. 167 OT6GATgtGCTTTGATTTCCCTt GGG 1.4 17 MYO1D Intron 3 n.d. 168 OT7aATTGGtTTTaATTTCCCTA AAG 1.1  8 PIK1A Intron 3 n.d. 169 OT8aATTGGgTTTGATTTCCCTt TGG 1.1 11 MS4A1 Intron 3 n.d. 170 OT9GATgGGtTTTtATTTCCCTA GAG 1.0 11 None None 3 n.d. 171 OT10GAaTGGtTTTGATTTCCCTg GAG 1.0 11 None None 3 n.d.  69 CR5 GuideGCAGTTGCCTAAGAACTGGT — — — — — — — 172 Target aCAGTTGCCTAAGAACTGGT GGG —X DMD Intron 1 14.0 173 OT1 cCAGTTGtCTAAGAACTGGg GAG 1.5  5 NRG1 Intron3 n.d. 174 OT2 GCAGTTGCCTgtGAACTGGT AGG 1.4 X None None 2 n.d. 175 OT3GCAGaTGCagAAGAACTGGT GAG 1.4 19 SMIM7 Intron 3 n.d. 176 OT4GCAGTTcCagAAGAACTGGT GAG 0.9 11 GLB1L2 Intron 3 n.d. 177 OT5caAcTTGCCTAtGAACTGGT AGG 0.7  8 ASAP1 Intron 4 n.d. 178 OT6aCAccTGCCTAAGAACTGGa GGG 0.7 11 None None 4 n.d. 179 OT7tCAGgTGgCTAAGAACTGGg TGG 0.7 14 NIN Intron 4 n.d. 180 OT8GaAGTTGgCcAAGAACTGGa GAG 0.6  7 None None 4 n.d. 181 OT9GCtGcTGCCcAAGAACTGGc AGG 0.6 11 AMOTL1 Intron 4 n.d. 182 OT10tCAGcTGgCTAAGAACgGGT AAG 0.6  7 ACTR3C Intron 4 n.d.  70 CR6 GuideGGGGCTCCACCCTCACGAGT — — — — — — — 183 Target aGGGCTCCACCCTCACGAGT GGG —X DMD Intron 1 19.9 184 OT1 GcaGCTCagCCCTCACGAGT CAG 0.8  3 None None 4n.d. 185 OT2 GGGGCTtCAgCaTCACGAGT GAG 0.8  8 None None 3 n.d. 186 OT3GGGGCTCtcCCCTCACtAGT GAG 0.6  8 None None 3 n.d. 187 OT4GGGGaTCCACCtTCACcAGT CAG 0.6  2 None None 3 n.d. 188 OT5aGGGCTggACCCTCACaAGT AAG 0.4 16 AXIN1 Intron 4 n.d. 189 OT6tGGtCTCCtCCCcCACGAGT GGG 0.4  2 None None 4 n.d. 190 OT7aGGGCTCCcaCCcCACGAGT GAG 0.3  5 None None 4 n.d. 191 OT8GaGGCTCCAtaCTCACcAGT GAG 0.3 11 None None 4 n.d. 192 OT9GGaGCTgCcCCtTCACGAGT GGG 0.3  3 None None 4 n.d. 193 OT10atGaCTCCACCCTCAaGAGT AAG 0.3  8 AGPAT5 None 4 n.d. 100 CR36 GuideGCCTTCTTTATCCCCTATCG — — — — — — — 194 Target GCCTTCTTTATCCCCTATCG AGG —X DMD Intron 0 20.6 195 OT1 GtCTgCTgTgTCCCCTATCG GGG 1.3 21 None None 4n.d. 196 OT2 cCCTTCTcTATCCCCTgTCG TGG 1.3  8 None None 3 n.d. 197 OT3GCCTTCTTTATCCCCTcTCt TGG 0.9 10 None None 2 0.5 198 OT4GCgcTCTTTtTCCCCTATCt TAG 0.6 16 None None 4 n.d. 199 OT5GCCcTCTgTcTCCCCTgTCG CAG 0.5  1 NFASC None 4 n.d. 200 OT6tCCATCTtTgTCCCCTATtG AGG 0.5 10 None None 4 n.d. 201 OT7aCCtTCTCTcTCCCCTATaG AGG 0.5  5 LOC100996485 Intron 4 n.d. 202 OT8GttTTCTTTtTCCCCTATgG GAG 0.5  3 None None 4 n.d. 203 OT9tgCTTCTTaATCCCCTATCa AAG 0.4  7 None None 4 n.d. 204 OT10aCCTTCTTacTCCCCTATCc GGG 0.4 10 ADARB2 None 4 n.d.

The resulting PCR products were randomly melted and reannealed in athermal cycler with the program: 95° C. for 240 s, followed by 85° C.for 60 s, 75° C. for 60 s, 65° C. for 60 s, 55° C. for 60 s, 45° C. for60 s, 35° C. for 60 s, and 25° C. for 60 s with a −0.3° C./s ratebetween steps. Following reannealing, 8 μL of PCR product was mixed with1 μL of Surveyor Nuclease S and 1 μL of Enhancer S (Transgenomic) andincubated at 42° C. for 1 hr. After incubation, 6 μL of digestionproduct was loaded onto a 10% TBE polyacrylamide gel and run at 200V for30 min. The gels were stained with ethidium bromide and quantified usingImageLab (Bio-Rad) by densitometry as previously described (Guschin, etal. Meth Mol Biol 649, 247-256 (2010)).

Fluorescence-activated cell sorting of myoblasts. DMD myoblasts wereelectroporated with 5 micrograms each of hCas9-T2A-GFP and sgRNAexpression vectors and incubated at 37° C. and 5% CO₂. Three days afterelectroporation, cells were trypsinized and collected for FACS sortingusing a FACSvantage II sorting machine. GFP-positive cells werecollected and grown for analysis.

PCR-based assay to detect genomic deletions. The exon 51 or exon 45-55loci were amplified from genomic DNA by PCR (Invitrogen AccuPrime HighFidelity PCR kit) using primers flanking each locus. The flankingprimers were Ce1I-CR1/2-F and Ce1I-CRS-R for exon 51 or Ce1I-CR6-F andCe1I-CR36-R for exon 45-55 analysis (Table 4). PCR products wereseparated on TAE-agarose gels and stained with ethidium bromide foranalysis.

PCR-based detection of translocations. Loci with predicted possibletranslocations were amplified by a two-step nested PCR (InvitrogenAccuPrime High Fidelity PCR kit for each step) of genomic DNA from cellstransfected with Cas9 alone (control) or Cas9 with sgRNA. In the firststep, translocations that may occur at each on-target and off-targetsgRNA target site were amplified by 35 cycles of PCR using combinationsof Surveyor primers for each locus that were modified to includerestriction sites to facilitate cloning and sequencing analysis (Table4). One microliter of each PCR reaction was subjected to a second roundof amplification by 35 rounds of PCR using nested primer sets customdesigned for each individual predicted translocation (Table 4). Eachsecond nested PCR primer binds within the same approximate region withinthe primary amplicon; however, each pair was optimized using Primer3online bioinformatics software to ensure specific detection of eachtranslocation. PCR amplicons corresponding to the expected length ofpredicted translocations and only present in cells treated with sgRNAwere purified (QIAGEN Gel Extraction kit) and analyzed by Sangersequencing.

mRNA analysis. Immortalized myoblasts were differentiated into myofibersby replacing the growth medium with DMEM supplemented with 1%insulin-transferrin-selenium (Invitrogen #51500056) and 1%penicillin/streptomycin (Invitrogen #15140) for 5 days before the cellswere trypsinized and collected. Total RNA was isolated from these cellsusing the RNeasy Plus Mini Kit (QIAGEN) according to the manufacturer'sinstructions. RNA was reverse transcribed to cDNA using the VILO cDNAsynthesis kit (Life Technologies #11754) and 1.5 micrograms of RNA for 2hrs at 42° C. according to the manufacturer's instructions. The targetloci were amplified by 35 cycles of PCR with the AccuPrime High FidelityPCR kit (Invitrogen) using primers annealing to exons 44 and 52 todetect exon 51 deletion by CR1/5 or CR2/5 or primers annealing to exons44 and 60 to detect exon 45-55 deletion by CR6/36 (Table 4). PCRproducts were run on TAE-agarose gels and stained with ethidium bromidefor analysis. The resolved PCR bands were cloned and analyzed by Sangersequencing to verify the expected exon junctions. Table 5 lists thesequences of primers used in Example 4.

TABLE 5 SEQ ID NO. Primer name Primer sequence Notes 205 Ce1I-CR1/2-FGAGAGGTTATGTGGCTTTACCA Forward Surveyor primer for CR1/2 206 Ce1I-CR1-RAAAAATGCTTCCCACTTTGC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR1 207 Ce1I-CR2-RCTCATTCTCATGCCTGGACA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR2 208 Ce1I-CR3-FGAGTTTGGCTCAAATTGTTACTCTT Forward Surveyor primer for CR3 209 Ce1I-CR3-RGGGAAATGGTCTAGGAGAGTAAAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3 T 210Ce1I-CR4/31-F GTTTGGCTCAAATTGTTACTCTTCA Forward Surveyor primer for CR4 or CR31 211 Ce1I-CR4/31-R GTGAGAGTAATGTGTTTGCTGAGAGReverse Surveyor primer for CR4  or CR31 212 Ce1I-CR5-FCGGGCTTGGACAGAACTTAC Forward Surveyor primer for CR5 213 Ce1I-CR5-RCTGCGTAGTGCCAAAACAAA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5 214 Ce1I-CR6-FTAATTTCATTGAAGAGTGGCTGAA Forward Surveyor primer for CR6 215 Ce1I-CR6-RAAGCCCTGTGTGGTAGTAGTCAGT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6 216 Ce1I-CR7-FTGAGTCATGTTGGATAACCAGTCT Forward Surveyor primer for CR7 217 Ce1I-CR7-RGAAGGTCAGGAACATACAATTCAA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR7 218Ce1I-CR10/11-F GATATGGGCATGTCAGTTTCATAGForward Surveyor primer for CR10  or CR11 219 Ce1I-CR10/11-RTGCTGTTGATTAATGGTTGATAGG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR10  or CR11 220Ce1I-CR12/13-F TTTTAAATTGCCATGTTTGTGTC Forward Surveyor primer for CR12 or CR13 221 Ce1I-CR12/13-R ATGAATAACCTAATGGGCAGAAAAReverse Surveyor primer for CR12  or CR13 222 Ce1I-CR14/15-FTCAAGTCGCTTCATTTTGATAGAC Forward Surveyor primer for CR14  or CR15 223Ce1I-CR14/15-R CACAACAAAACATATAGCCAAAGCReverse Surveyor primer for CR14  or CR15 224 Ce1I-CR16/17-FTGCTGCTAAAATAACACAAATCAGT Forward Surveyor primer for CR16  or CR17 225Ce1I-CR16/17-R CTGTGCCTATTGTGGTTATCCTG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR16 or CR17 226 Ce1I-CR18/19-F ATTGATCTGCAATACATGTGGAGTForward Surveyor primer for CR18  or CR19 227 Ce1I-CR18/19-RTTTGCCTCTGCTATTACAGTATGG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR18  or CR19 228Ce1I-CR20/21-F TGTAGGGTGGTTGGCTAAAATAATForward Surveyor primer for CR20  or CR21 229 Ce1I-CR20/21-RTTTTTGCACAGTCAATAACACAAA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR20  or CR21 230Ce1I-CR22/23-F GGCTGGTCTCACAATTGTACTTTAForward Surveyor primer for CR22  or CR23 231 Ce1I-CR22/23-RCATTATGGACTGAAAATCTCAGCA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR22  or CR23 232Ce1I-CR24/25-F ATCATCCTAGCCATAACACAATGAForward Surveyor primer for CR24  or CR25 233 Ce1I-CR24/25-RTTCAGCTTTAACGTGATTTTCTGT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR24  or CR25 234Ce1I-CR26/27-F GGATTCAGAAGCTGTTTACGAAGTForward Surveyor primer for CR26  or CR27 235 Ce1I-CR26/27-RTTTAGCTGGATTGGAAAAACAAAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR26  or CR27 236Ce1I-CR28/29-F AACTCACCCCATTGTTGGTATATTForward Surveyor primer for CR28  or CR29 237 Ce1I-CR28/29-RCCTTGTCCAAATACCGAAATACAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR28  or CR29 238Ce1I-CR33-F CACATAATTCATGAACTTGGCTTC Forward Surveyor primer for CR33239 Ce1I-CR33-R TAGTAGCTGGGGAGGAAGATACAGReverse Surveyor primer for CR33 240 Ce1I-CR34-FTTTTTGTTTTAATTGCGACTGTGT Forward Surveyor primer for CR34 241Ce1I-CR34-R AGAAAAGGGGTTTTCTTTTGACTT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR34242 Ce1I-CR35-F CATTGTGACTGGATGAGAAGAAACForward Surveyor primer for CR35 243 Ce1I-CR35-RAACGGCTGTTATTAAAGTCCTCAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR35 244Ce1I-CR36-F CAAGTCAGAAGTCACTTGCTTTGT Forward Surveyor primer for CR36245 Ce1I-CR36-R TTTTATGTGCAGGAATCAGTCTGTReverse Surveyor primer for CR36 246 Dys-E44-F TGGCGGCGTTTTCATTATForward RT-PCR primer binding in exon 44 247 Dys-E52-RTTCGATCCGTAATGATTGTTCTAGCC Reverse RT-PCR primer binding in exon 52 248Dys-E60-R GGTCTTCCAGAGTGCTGAGG Reverse RT-PCR primer binding in exon 60249 CR3-Ce1I-OT1-F TGTGTGCTTCTGTACACATCATCTForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 1 250 CR3-Ce1I-OT1-RAGATTTCAACCCTCAAAAACTGAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 1251 CR3-Ce1I-OT2-F TAAACTCTTTCTTTTCCGCAATTCForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 2 252 CR3-Ce1I-OT2-RCAAGGTGACCTGCTACCTAAAAAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 2253 CR3-Ce1I-OT3-F TATGACCAAGGCTATGTGTTCACTForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 3 254 CR3-Ce1I-OT3-RACAGCCTCTCTCCAGTAACATTCT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 3255 CR3-Ce1I-OT4-F TATTCTTGCAGTGGTTTCACATTTForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 4 256 CR3-Ce1I-OT4-RATATTTTAAGCCAAGACCCAACAA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 4257 CR3-Ce1I-OT5-F CTTTCAACTGTCTGTCTGATTGCTForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 5 258 CR3-Ce1I-OT5-RAACAGCCTCTCTTCATTGTTCTCT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 5259 CR3-Ce1I-OT6-F CTCTGGAACTTGTCTCTGTCTTGAForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 6 260 CR3-Ce1I-OT6-RCTTTCCTGCGTTCTCATGTTACTA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 6261 CR3-Ce1I-OT7-F CCTTATATCCGTATCGCTCACTCTForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 7 262 CR3-Ce1I-OT7-RCATATCTGTCTAACTTCCGCACAC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 7263 CR3-Ce1I-OT8-F ACAGGTGTTATGTTGTCTGCATCTForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 8 264 CR3-Ce1I-OT8-RACTCCATTCCCAGATTAGTTATGC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 8265 CR3-Ce1I-OT9-F CTGTTTTCTTTGTGAGAGTGGAGAForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 9 266 CR3-Ce1I-OT9-RTGTAAGGTGGTCAAACTTGCTCTA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  toff-arget 9267 CR3-Ce1I-OT10-F TTTTTCCTAGTACCCACAGATTTTTForward Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 10 268 CR3-Ce1I-OT10-RTCCCTGATTCTCTCATTTGTGTTA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR3  off-target 10269 CR1-Ce1I-OT1-F TTGGGAACATCAGAGAAAGTATGAForward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 1 270 CR1-Ce1I-OT1-RACAAATTACAGTCTCCTGGGAAAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 1271 CR1-Ce1I-OT2-F AGTAGCTTACCTTGGCAGAGAAAAForward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 2 272 CR1-Ce1I-OT2-RTGACATACTGTTACCCTTTGCAGT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 2273 CR1-Ce1I-OT3-F GAAAGGCTCAGTGAATGTTTGTTForward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 3 274 CR1-Ce1I-OT3-RCACTGCATCATCTCATTAAATCAA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 3275 CR1-Ce1I-OT4-F CCCATATATTCATGATTACCCACAForward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 4 276 CR1-Ce1I-OT4-RTATCAGAACGAGCACTAAAAGCAC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 4277 CR1-Ce1I-OT5-F TTGGGAGGCTGAGGTACAAG Forward Surveyor primer for CR1 off-target 5 278 CR1-Ce1I-OT5-R GAATGAAAAACAAACAGAAGGTGAReverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 5 279 CR1-Ce1I-OT6-FCTCCTCATCTGTACCCTTCAATCT Forward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 6280 CR1-Ce1I-OT6-R AGAGTGGCATCTAGTGTCAGTGAGReverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 6 281 CR1-Ce1I-OT7-FTACCAAAAGCTTCTCCTGTTTACC Forward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 7282 CR1-Ce1I-OT7-R GTAAGTTGGATGGCCTATTCTTTGReverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 7 283 CR1-Ce1I-OT8-FGAAGGAAATGCAAGGATACAAGAT Forward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 8284 CR1-Ce1I-OT8-R TGATTGAAAGAATCATTCCAGAAAReverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 8 285 CR1-Ce1I-OT9-FTCAGAAGGAAAATTGAAATTGGTT Forward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 9286 CR1-Ce1I-OT9-R CAGATGTGTTCTTCATCATTCCTCReverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 9 287 CR1-Ce1I-OT10-FTTCTCTTTAGGGAAAGCTCTCAAA Forward Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 10288 CR1-Ce1I-OT10-R GGGTATAGATCATATGGAGGGAAGReverse Surveyor primer for CR1  off-target 10 289 CR5-Ce1I-OT1-FAGATGATCTGCCCACCTCAG Forward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 1 290CR5-Ce1I-OT1-R CTTTCTTCCTCATTTAGTGGCAAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5 off-target 1 291 CR5-Ce1I-OT2-F ATGAATTGCAGATTGATGGTACTGForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 2 292 CR5-Ce1I-OT2-RTCTCACCAAGAACCAAATTGTCTA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 2293 CR5-Ce1I-OT3-F GTAGGATACCTTGGCAACAGTCTTForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 3 294 CR5-Ce1I-OT3-RTTAACGAATTGTGAGATTTGCTGT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 3295 CR5-Ce1I-OT4-F TCAGAAAGTCAAGTAGCACACACAForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 4 296 CR5-Ce1I-OT4-RAGAAGCACACACTCAGGTAAAGC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 4297 CR5-Ce1I-OT5-F TCTTTGGGGGAATAATGACTAAAAForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 5 298 CR5-Ce1I-OT5-RTTTGGCATTTATGGGAATAAAACT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 5299 CR5-Ce1I-OT6-F ACTAATTCTGGTCAAGCCCATCAForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 6 300 CR5-Ce1I-OT6-RTTAAGACATCGGATGAACAGAAAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 6301 CR5-Ce1I-OT7-F AGAAGCTTTCTGACATGATCTGCForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 7 302 CR5-Ce1I-OT7-RTCAATTGCATTAGGACTTAGACCA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 7303 CR5-Ce1I-OT8-F GTTAAATTACCTGTGAAGCCCTTGForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 8 304 CR5-Ce1I-OT8-RCGGAAAACAGATCCACTTTATGAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 8305 CR5-Ce1I-OT9-F AAATCCACTGGAAACATCTTGAGTForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 9 306 CR5-Ce1I-OT9-RAGTCTCTTCAGAATCATGCCCTAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 9307 CR5-Ce1I-OT10-F GCTTGGTGGCACATACCTGTAGForward Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 10 308 CR5-Ce1I-OT10-RGGTAGGTAGATTTGCTTGCTTGTT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR5  off-target 10309 CR6-Ce1I-OT1-F AGCTCTCAGCAGAGTAGGGATTTAForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 1 310 CR6-Ce1I-OT1-RGTGAGTCTACTGCACCCCATC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 1 311CR6-Ce1I-OT2-F TGACACTGTGAAGTCAATTCTGTC Forward Surveyor primer for CR6 toff-arget 2 312 CR6-Ce1I-OT2-R TCAAGAACTTGACAATGAGCAAATReverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 2 313 CR6-Ce1I-OT3-FTATCCGATCCACTGTTGTGTGT Forward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 3 314CR6-Ce1I-OT3-R CAGGAGACCCAAAACCACTCTAC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6 off-target 3 315 CR6-Ce1I-OT4-F TTGTTCTACAAATAGGGCTTCCTTForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 4 316 CR6-Ce1I-OT4-RTGTTAAGTTTGGGCTTATGTTCCT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 4317 CR6-Ce1I-OT5-F CACAAGTCTCACTGCACAAACATForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 5 318 CR6-Ce1I-OT5-RTGACCCATGATTATCTCTCTTTGA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 5319 CR6-Ce1I-OT6-F TTCAGCTTCTGATTGGTTTTAATGForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 6 320 CR6-Ce1I-OT6-RCCAATTCCTTAATTTTCCCTACAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 6321 CR6-Ce1I-OT7-F ATCTCAGACCAGGAGGGAGACForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 7 322 CR6-Ce1I-OT7-RCCTCAGGGTCAGTACATTTTTCAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 7323 CR6-Ce1I-OT8-F TTCTTAGGACATTGCTCCACATACForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 8 324 CR6-Ce1I-OT8-RGCAAACATAATGCAACTCGTAATC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 8325 CR6-Ce1I-OT9-F GCAAGGGAGTCTGTGTCTTTGForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 9 326 CR6-Ce1I-OT9-RTCATTTAAGTGGCTGTTCTGTGTT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 9327 CR6-Ce1I-OT10-F ACAAAACAGAGAGAAAAGGCAGAGForward Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 10 328 CR6-Ce1I-OT10-RGTTTTGATTTCTGGTGCCTACAG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR6  off-target 10329 CR36-Ce1I-OT1-F ACTGAAGCTGAAGCCCAGTCForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 1 330 CR36-Ce1I-OT1-RACATGAGCTCTCAGGTTTCTGAC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 1331 CR36-Ce1I-OT2-F TCAAACTTAGATGGTTCCCTATGTTForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 2 332 CR36-Ce1I-OT2-RGTACCCTGAAAATGTAGGGTGACT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 2333 CR36-Ce1I-OT3-F CACTTCCCAAGTGAGGCAATForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 3 334 CR36-Ce1I-OT3-RCTATACTTGGGGCTGACTTGCTAC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 3335 CR36-Ce1I-OT4-F TCGTATAGGTTACTTTGGCTCACAForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 4 336 CR36-Ce1I-OT4-RAGGGATCTTTACTCCTCAGTGTGT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 4337 CR36-Ce1I-OT5-F TGTAGAAGTTGGAATATCCTGCTGForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 5 338 CR36-Ce1I-OT5-RGTCAACAATTTGATCTCAGGCTTC Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 5339 CR36-Ce1I-OT6-F CTCAGTACTAAAGATGGACGCTTGForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 6 340 CR36-Ce1I-OT6-RAATCATTTCAGTCTTCCCAACAAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 6341 CR36-Ce1I-OT7-F GGGAATCACAGTAGATGTTTGTCAForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 7 342 CR36-Ce1I-OT7-RAGACCAGGAGGTAAGAACATTTTG Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 7343 CR36-Ce1I-OT8-F CCACATAGAAAGAGACTTGCAGAAForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 8 344 CR36-Ce1I-OT8-RAGAGATGCCAAAAGAACAGTCAAT Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 8345 CR36-Ce1I-OT9-F TGTGCCTTAGGCTATGTAAACTGTForward Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 9 346 CR36-Ce1I-OT9-RAAACCCTTGTAACCAAAATTACCA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 off-target 9347 CR36-Ce1I-OT10- TAACTGCATCAGAAGTCCTTGCTAForward Surveyor primer for CR36 F off-target 10 348 CR36-Ce1I-OT10-GGAGACCAAGCTGCTAAAGTCA Reverse Surveyor primer for CR36 R off-target 10349 Ce1I-CR3-F- GTGGTGccgcggGAGTTTGGCTCAAATNested PCR first round primers nested TGTTACTCTT 350 Ce1I-CR3-R-GTGGTGccgcggGGGAAATGGTCTAG Nested PCR first round primers nestedGAGAGTAAAGT 351 Ce1I-CR1-F- GTGGTGccgcggGAGAGGTTATGTGGCNested PCR first round primers nested TTTACCA 352 Ce1I-CR1-R-GTGGTGccgcggCTCATTCTCATGCCT Nested PCR first round primers nested GGACA353 Ce1I-CR5-F- GTGGTGccgcggCGGGCTTGGACAGANested PCR first round primers nested ACTTAC 354 Ce1I-CR5-R-GTGGTGccgcggCTGCGTAGTGCCAAA Nested PCR first round primers nested ACAAA355 Ce1I-CR6-F- GTGGTGccgcggTAATTTCATTGAAGANested PCR first round primers nested GTGGCTGAA 356 Ce1I-CR6-R-GTGGTGccgcggAAGCCCTGTGTGGTA Nested PCR first round primers nestedGTAGTCAGT 357 Ce1I-CR36-F- GTGGTGccgcggCAAGTCAGAAGTCACNested PCR first round primers nested TTGCTTTGT 358 Ce1I-CR36-R-GTGGTGccgcggTTTTATGTGCAGGAA Nested PCR first round primers nestedTCAGTCTGT 359 CR3-Ce1I-OT1-F- GTGGTGccgcggTGTGTGCTTCTGTACNested PCR first round primers nested ACATCATCT 360 CR3-Ce1I-OT1-R-GTGGTGccgcggAGATTTCAACCCTCA Nested PCR first round primers nestedAAAACTGAG 361 CR1-Ce1I-OT1-F- GTGGTGccgcggTTGGGAACATCAGAGNested PCR first round primers nested AAAGTATGA 362 CR1-Ce1I-OT1-R-GTGGTGccgcggACAAATTACAGTCTC Nested PCR first round primers nestedCTGGGAAAG 363 CR36-Ce1I-OT3- GTGGTGccgcggCACTTCCCAAGTGAGNested PCR first round primers F-nested GCAAT 364 CR36-Ce1I-OT3-GTGGTGccgcggCTATACTTGGGGCTG Nested PCR first round primers R-nestedACTTGCTAC 365 CR3-P1/P3-F GTGGTGccgcggTTGGCTCTTTAGCTTNested PCR second round primers GTGTTTC 366 CR3-P1/P3-RGTGGTGccgcggTGAGACTCCCAAAGG Nested PCR second round primers CAATC 367CR3-P1/P4-F GTGGTGccgcggTTGGCTCTTTAGCTT Nested PCR second round primersGTGTTTC 368 CR3-P1/P4-R GTGGTGccgcggACTGAGGGGTGATCTNested PCR second round primers TGGTG 369 CR3-P2/P3-FGTGGTGccgcggGCAGAGAAAGCCAG Nested PCR second round primers TCGGTA 370CR3-P2/P3-R GTGGTGccgcggTGAGACTCCCAAAGG Nested PCR second round primersCAATC 371 CR3-P2/P4-F GTGGTGccgcggGCAGAGAAAGCCAGNested PCR second round primers TCGGTA 372 CR3-P2/P4-RGTGGTGccgcggACTGAGGGGTGATCT Nested PCR second round primers TGGTG 373CR1-P1/P5-F GTGGTGccgcggCCAGAGTTCCTAGGG Nested PCR second round primersCAGAG 374 CR1-P1/P5-R GTGGTGccgcggAGCTAGTCCCCACATNested PCR second round primers TCCAC 375 CR1-P1/P6-FGTGGTGccgcggCCAGAGTTCCTAGGG Nested PCR second round primers CAGAG 376CR1-P1/P6-R GTGGTGccgcggGGTGGAGGGAAACT Nested PCR second round primersTTAGGC 377 CR1-P2/P5-F GTGGTGccgcggCTCATTCTCATGCCTNested PCR second round primers GGACA 378 CR1-P2/P5-RGTGGTGccgcggAGCTAGTCCCCACAT Nested PCR second round primers TCCAC 379CR1-P2/P6-F GTGGTGccgcggTCTCATGCCTGGACA Nested PCR second round primersAGTAACT 380 CR1-P2/P6-R GTGGTGccgcggGGTGGAGGGAAACTNested PCR second round primers TTAGGC 381 CR5-P3/P5-FGTGGTGccgcggGGCTTGGACAGAACT Nested PCR second round primers TACCG 382CR5-P3/P5-R GTGGTGccgcggCACCACTGTCTGCCT Nested PCR second round primersAAGGA 383 CR5-P4/P6-F GTGGTGccgcggGGCTTGGACAGAACTNested PCR second round primers TACCG 384 CR5-P4/P6-RGTGGTGccgcggGGTGGAGGGAAACT Nested PCR second round primers TTAGGC 385CR5-P3/P5-F GTGGTGccgcggCGTAGTGCCAAAACA Nested PCR second round primersAACAGT 386 CR5-P3/P5-R GTGGTGccgcggCACCACTGTCTGCCTNested PCR second round primers AAGGA 387 CR5-P4/P6-FGTGGTGccgcggCGTAGTGCCAAAACA Nested PCR second round primers AACAGT 388CR5-P4/P6-R GTGGTGccgcggGGTGGAGGGAAACT Nested PCR second round primersTTAGGC 389 CR6-P1/P5-F GTGGTGccgcggGCGAGGGCCTACTTGNested PCR second round primers ATATG 390 CR6-P1/P5-RGTGGTGccgcggCTTCCCAAGTGAGGC Nested PCR second round primers AATGC 391CR6-P1/P6-F GTGGTGccgcggACGTTTTGTGCTGCT Nested PCR second round primersGTAACA 392 CR6-P1/P6-R GTGGTGccgcggCTGCAGGCACATTCTNested PCR second round primers CTTCC 393 CR6-P2/P5-FGTGGTGccgcggGCCCTGTGTGGTAGT Nested PCR second round primers AGTCA 394CR6-P2/P5-R GTGGTGccgcggCTTCCCAAGTGAGGC Nested PCR second round primersAATGC 395 CR6-P2/P6-F GTGGTGccgcggCAGTATTAAGGGGTGNested PCR second round primers GGAGCT 396 CR6-P2/P6-RGTGGTGccgcggTCTCTTCCTCACACA Nested PCR second round primers GCTGA 397CR36-P3/P5-F GTGGTGccgcggGGAGCTTGGAGGGA Nested PCR second round primersAGAGAA 398 CR36-P3/P5-R GTGGTGccgcggCTTCCCAAGTGAGGCNested PCR second round primers AATGC 399 CR36-P4/P6-FGTGGTGccgcggATGGATGGGGAAGA Nested PCR second round primers CACTGG 400CR36-P4/P6-R GTGGTGccgcggCTGCAGGCACATTCT Nested PCR second round primersCTTCC 401 CR36-P3/P5-F GTGGTGccgcggGGATGAAACAGGGCNested PCR second round primers AGGAAC 402 CR36-P3/P5-RGTGGTGccgcggTTCCCAAGTGAGGCA Nested PCR second round primers ATGC 403CR36-P4/P6-F GTGGTGccgcggTTTGCAGAGCCATGA Nested PCR second round primersTGAGG 404 CR36-P4/P6-R GTGGTGccgcggCGACAGCCAAAACANested PCR second round primers GCCG

Western blot analysis. To assess dystrophin protein expression,immortalized myoblasts were differentiated into myofibers by replacingthe growth medium with DMEM supplemented with 1%insulin-transferrin-selenium (Invitrogen) and 1% antibiotic/antimycotic(Invitrogen) for 4-7 days, such as 6 or 7 days. Fibroblasts weretransdifferentiated into myoblasts by inducing MyoD overexpression andincubating the cells in DMEM supplemented with 1%insulin-transferrin-selenium (Invitrogen), 1% antibiotic/antimycotic(Invitrogen) and 3 μg/mL doxycycline for 15 days. Dystrophin expressionwas assessed at 3 days after transfecting HEK293T cells. Cells weretrypsinized, collected and lysed in RIPA buffer (Sigma) supplementedwith a protease inhibitor cocktail (Sigma) and the total protein amountwas quantified using the bicinchoninic acid assay according to themanufacturer's instructions (Pierce). Samples were then mixed withNuPAGE loading buffer (Invitrogen) and 5% β-mercaptoethanol and heatedto 85° C. for 10 minutes. Twenty-five micrograms of protein wereseparated on 4-12% NuPAGE Bis-Tris gels (Invitrogen) with MES buffer(Invitrogen). Proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes for1-2 hrs in transfer buffer containing 10-20% methanol, such as 10%methanol, and 0.01% SDS. The blot was then blocked for 1 hr with 5%milk-TBST at room temperature. Blots were probed with the followingprimary antibodies: MANDYS8 to detect dystrophin (1:100, Sigma D8168)and rabbit anti-GAPDH (1:5000, Cell Signaling 2118S). Blots were thenincubated with mouse or rabbit horseradish peroxidase-conjugatedsecondary antibodies (Santa Cruz) and visualized using the ChemiDocchemilumescent system (BioRad) and Western-C ECL substrate (BioRad).

Transplantation into immunodeficient mice. All animal experiments wereconducted under protocols approved by the Duke Institutional Animal Care& Use Committee. Cells were trypsinized, collected and washed in 1×Hank's Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS, Sigma). Two million cells werepelleted and resuspended in five μL 1× HB SS (Sigma) supplemented withcardiotoxin (Sigma # C9759) immediately prior to injection. These cellswere transplanted into the hind limb tibialis anterior (TA) muscle ofNOD.SCID.gamma (NSG) mice (Duke CCIF Breeding Core) by intramuscularinjection. Four weeks after injection, mice were euthanized and the TAmuscles were harvested.

Immunofluorescence staining. Harvested TA muscles were incubated in 30%glycerol overnight at 4° C. before mounting and freezing in OptimalCutting Temperature compound. Serial 10 micron sections were obtained bycryosectioning of the embedded muscle tissue at −20° C. Cryosectionswere then washed in PBS to remove the OCT compound and subsequentlyblocked for 30-60 minutes at room temperature in PBS containing 10%heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum for spectrin detection or 5%heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum for dystrophin detection.Cryosections were incubated overnight at 4° C. with the followingprimary antibodies that are specific to human epitopes only:anti-spectrin (1:20, Leica NCL-SPEC1) or anti-dystrophin (1:2, LeicaNCL-DYS3). After primary staining, spectrin or dystrophin expression wasdetected using a tyramide-based immunofluorescence signal amplificationdetection kit (Life Technologies, TSA Kit #22, catalog # T-20932,).Briefly, cryosections were incubated with 1:200 goat anti-mousebiotin-XX secondary (Life Technologies # B2763) in blocking buffer for 1hr at room temperature. The signal was then amplified usingstreptavidin-HRP conjugates (1:100, from TSA Kit) in blocking buffer for1 hr at room temperature. Finally, cryosections were incubated withtyramide-AlexaFluor488 conjugates (1:100, TSA kit) inmanufacturer-provided amplification buffer for 10 minutes at roomtemperature. Stained cryosections were then mounted in ProLong AntiFade(Life Technologies # P36934) and visualized with conventionalfluorescence microscopy.

Cytotoxicity assay. To quantitatively assess potential sgRNA or SpCas9nuclease-associated cytotoxicity, HEK293T cells were transfected with 10ng of a GFP reporter and 100 ng SpCas9 expression vector and 100 ngsgRNA expression vector using Lipofectamine 2000 according to themanufacturer's instructions (Invitrogen). The percentage of GFP positivecells was assessed at 2 and 5 days by flow cytometry. The survival ratewas calculated as the decrease in GFP positive cells from days 2 to 5and normalized to cells transfected with an empty nuclease expressionvector as described (Cornu et al., Meth Mol Biol 649:237-245 (2010)).

Example 4 CRISPRs Targeting the Dystrophin Gene—Results

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system was designed to target the dystrophin gene.Various gRNAs were chosen to target different regions of the human andmouse dystrophin gene based on NNNNN NNNNN NNNNN NNNNN NGG (SEQ ID NO:677) and GNNNN NNNNN NNNNN NNNNN NGG (SEQ ID NO: 678) (see Tables 6, 7and 8).

TABLE 6 Name (SEQ 19 bp for ID chimeric (add G NO) Species Gene TargetStrand on 5′ end) PAM DCR1 Human DMD Intron 50 + attggctttgatttcccta GGG(628) (SEQ ID NO: 65) DCR2 Human DMD Intron 50 − tgtagagtaagtcagccta TGG(66) (SEQ ID NO: 679) DCR3 Human DMD Exon 51-55′ + cctactcagactgttactcTGG (629) (SEQ ID NO: 67) DCR4 Human DMD Exon 51-53′ +ttggacagaacttaccgac TGG (68) (SEQ ID NO: 680) DCR5 Human DMD Intron 51 −cagttgcctaagaactggt GGG (630) (SEQ ID NO: 69) DCR6 Human DMD Intron 44 −GGGCTCCACCCTCACGAGT GGG (631) (SEQ ID NO: 70) DCR7 Human DMD Intron 55 +TTTGCTTCGCTATAAAACG AGG (71) (SEQ ID NO: 681) DCR8 Human DMD Exon 41 +TCTGAGGATGGGGCCGCAA TGG (72) (SEQ ID NO: 682) DCR9 Human DMD Exon 44 −GATCTGTCAAATCGCCTGC AGG (73) (SEQ ID NO: 683) DCR10 Human DMD Exon 45 +CCAGGATGGCATTGGGCAG CGG (74) (SEQ ID NO: 684) DCR11 Human DMD Exon 45 +CTGAATCTGCGGTGGCAGG AGG (75) (SEQ ID NO: 685) DCR12 Human DMD Exon 46 −TTCTTTTGTTCTTCTAGCc TGG (76) (SEQ ID NO: 686) DCR13 Human DMD Exon 46 +GAAAAGCTTGAGCAAGTCA AGG (77) (SEQ ID NO: 687) DCR14 Human DMD Exon 47 +GAAGAGTTGCCCCTGCGCC AGG (78) (SEQ ID NO: 688) DCR15 Human DMD Exon 47 +ACAAATCTCCAGTGGATAA AGG (79) (SEQ ID NO: 689) DCR16 Human DMD Exon 48 −TGTTTCTCAGGTAAAGCTC TGG (80) (SEQ ID NO: 690) DCR17 Human DMD Exon 48 +GAAGGACCATTTGACGTTa AGG (81) (SEQ ID NO: 691) DCR18 Human DMD Exon 49 −AACTGCTATTTCAGTTTCc TGG (82) (SEQ ID NO: 692) DCR19 Human DMD Exon 49 +CCAGCCACTCAGCCAGTGA AGG (83) (SEQ ID NO: 693) DCR20 Human DMD Exon 50 +gtatgcttttctgttaaag AGG (84) (SEQ ID NO: 694) DCR21 Human DMD Exon 50 +CTCCTGGACTGACCACTAT TGG (85) (SEQ ID NO: 695) DCR22 Human DMD Exon 52 +GAACAGAGGCGTCCCCAGT TGG (86) (SEQ ID NO: 696) DCR23 Human DMD Exon 52 +GAGGCTAGAACAATCATTA CGG (87) (SEQ ID NO: 697) DCR24 Human DMD Exon 53 +ACAAGAACACCTTCAGAAC CGG (88) (SEQ ID NO: 698) DCR25 Human DMD Exon 53 −GGTTTCTGTGATTTTCTTT TGG (89) (SEQ ID NO: 699) DCR26 Human DMD Exon 54 +GGCCAAAGACCTCCGCCAG TGG (90) (SEQ ID NO: 700) DCR27 Human DMD Exon 54 +TTGGAGAAGCATTCATAAA AGG (91) (SEQ ID NO: 701) DCR28 Human DMD Exon 55 −TCGCTCACTCACCctgcaa AGG (92) (SEQ ID NO: 702) DCR29 Human DMD Exon 55 +AAAAGAGCTGATGAAACAA TGG (93) (SEQ ID NO: 703) DCR30 Human DMD 5′UTR/ +TAcACTTTTCaAAATGCTT TGG (94) Exon 1 (SEQ ID NO: 704) DCR31 Human DMDExon 51 + gagatgatcatcaagcaga AGG (95) (SEQ ID NO: 705) DCR32 Mouse DMDmdx + ctttgaaagagcaaTaaaa TGG (96) mutation (SEQ ID NO: 706) DCR33 HumanDMD Intron 44 − CACAAAAGTCAAATCGGAA TGG (97) (SEQ ID NO: 707) DCR34Human DMD Intron 44 − ATTTCAATATAAGATTCGG AGG (98) (SEQ ID NO: 708)DCR35 Human DMD Intron 55 − CTTAAGCAATCCCGAACTC TGG (99)(SEQ ID NO: 709) DCR36 Human DMD Intron 55 − CCTTCTTTATCCCCTATCG AGG(632) (SEQ ID NO: 100) DCR40 Mouse DMD Exon 23 − aggccaaacctcggcttacNNGRR (104) (SEQ ID NO: 710) DCR41 Mouse DMD Exon 23 +TTCGAAAATTTCAGgtaag NNGRR (105) (SEQ ID NO: 711) DCR42 Mouse DMDExon 23 + gcagaacaggagataacag NNGRRT (106) (SEQ ID NO: 712) DCR43 MouseACVR2B Exon 1 + gcggccctcgcccttctct ggggat (107) (SEQ ID NO: 713) DCR48Human DMD Intron 45 − TAGTGATCGTGGATACGAG AGG (108) (SEQ ID NO: 714)DCR49 Human DMD Intron 45 − TACAGCCCTCGGTGTATAT TGG (109)(SEQ ID NO: 715) DCR50 Human DMD Intron 52 − GGAAGGAATTAAGCCCGAA TGG(110) (SEQ ID NO: 716) DCR51 Human DMD Intron 53 − GGAACAGCTTTCGTAGTTGAGG (111) (SEQ ID NO: 718) DCR52 Human DMD Intron 54 +ATAAAGTCCAGTGTCGATC AGG (112) (SEQ ID NO: 719) DCR53 Intron 54 +AAAACCAGAGCTTCGGTCA AGG (113) (SEQ ID NO: 720) DCR54 Mouse Rosa26ZFN region + GAGTCTTCTGGGCAGGCTTAA TGG (114) AGGCTAACC (SEQ ID NO: 720)DCR55 Mouse Rosa26 mRNA − TCGGGTGAGCATGTCTTTAAT TGG (115) CTACCTCGA(SEQ ID NO: 721) DCR49 Human DMD Ex 51 − gtgtcaccagagtaacagt ctgagt(116) (SEQ ID NO: 722) DCR50 Human DMD Ex 51 + tgatcatcaagcagaaggt atgag(117) (SEQ ID NO: 723) DCR60 Mouse DMD Exon 23 + AACTTCGAAAATTTCAGgtaagccgagg (118) (SEQ ID NO: 724) DCR61 Mouse DMD Intron 22 +gaaactcatcaaatatgcgt gttagtgt (119) (SEQ ID NO: 725) DCR62 Mouse DMDIntron 22 − tcatttacactaacacgcat atttgatg (120) (SEQ ID NO: 726) DCR63Mouse DMD Intron 22 + gaatgaaactcatcaaatat gcgtgtta (121)(SEQ ID NO: 727) DCR64 Mouse DMD Intron 23 − tcatcaatatctttgaaggactctgggt (122) (SEQ ID NO: 728) DCR65 Mouse DMD Intron 23 −tgttttcataggaaaaatag gcaagttg (123) (SEQ ID NO: 729) DCR66 Mouse DMDIntron 23 + aattggaaaatgtgatggga aacagata (124) (SEQ ID NO: 730) DCR67Human DMD Exon 51 + atgatcatcaagcagaaggt atgagaaa (125) (SEQ ID NO: 731)DCR68 Human DMD Exon 51 + agatgatcatcaagcagaag gtatgaga (126)(SEQ ID NO: 732) DCR69 Human DMD Exon 51 − cattttttctcataccttct gcttgatg(127) (SEQ ID NO: 733) DCR70 Human DMD Exon 51 + tcctactcagactgttactctggtgaca (128) (SEQ ID NO: 734) DCR71 Human DMD Exon 51 −acaggttgtgtcaccagagt aacagtct (129) (SEQ ID NO: 735) DCR72 Human DMDExon 51 − ttatcattttttctcatacc ttctgctt (130) (SEQ ID NO: 736) DCR73Human DMD Intron 51 − ttgcctaagaactggtggga aatggtct (131)(SEQ ID NO: 737) DCR74 Human DMD Intron 51 − aaacagttgcctaagaactggtgggaaa (132) (SEQ ID NO: 738) DCR75 Human DMD Intron 51 +tttcccaccagttcttaggc aactgttt (133) (SEQ ID NO: 739) DCR76 Human DMDIntron 50 + tggctttgatttccctaggg tccagctt (134) (SEQ ID NO: 740) DCR77Human DMD Intron 50 − tagggaaatcaaagccaatg aaacgttc (135)(SEQ ID NO: 741) DCR78 Human DMD Intron 50 − gaccctagggaaatcaaagccaatgaaa (136) (SEQ ID NO: 742) DCR79 Human DMD Intron 44 −TGAGGGCTCCACCCTCACGA GTGGGTTT (137) (SEQ ID NO: 743) DCR80 Human DMDIntron 44 − AAGGATTGAGGGCTCCACCC TCACGAGT (138) (SEQ ID NO: 744) DCR81Human DMD Intron 44 − GCTCCACCCTCACGAGTGGG TTTGGTTC (139)(SEQ ID NO: 745) DCR82 Human DMD Intron 55 − TATCCCCTATCGAGGAAACCACGAGTTT (140) (SEQ ID NO: 746) DCR83 Human DMD Intron 55 +GATAAAGAAGGCCTATTTCA TAGAGTTG (141) (SEQ ID NO: 747) DCR84 Human DMDIntron 55 − AGGCCTTCTTTATCCCCTAT CGAGGAAA (142) (SEQ ID NO: 748) DCR85Human DMD Intron 44 − TGAGGGCTCCACCCTCACGA GTGGGT (143) (SEQ ID NO: 749)DCR86 Human DMD Intron 55 + GATAAAGAAGGCCTATTTCA TAGAGT (144)(SEQ ID NO: 750)

TABLE 7 Name Notes % Mod DCR1 Delete exon 51 6.6 DCR2 Delete exon 5110.3 DCR3 Frameshift 13 DCR4 Delete exon 51 11.9 DCR5 Delete exon 5112.4 DCR6 As close to exon 44 as possible in intron 44 (in case ofpatient deletions) 16.1 DCR7 As close to exon 56 as possible in intron55 (in case of patient deletions) 6.8 DCR8 Can correct exon 42-43deletion (−1/+2) only, (−2/+1) is not correctable by 17.3 this DCR9 Skipexon 44 (5′) 14.4 DCR10 Frameshift 14.9 DCR11 Correct downstream of exon45 <1 DCR12 5′ splice acceptor/frameshift <1 DCR13 Correct downstream ofexon 46 16.9 DCR14 Frameshift 17.2 DCR15 Correct downstream of exon 4715.4 DCR16 Frameshift 11.5 DCR17 Correct downstream of exon 48 <1 DCR185′ splice acceptor/frameshift 1.8 DCR19 Correct downstream of exon 4933.7 DCR20 5′ splice acceptor 14.9 DCR21 Correct downstream of exon 5024.1 DCR22 Frameshift 25.9 DCR23 Correct downstream of exon 52 25.2DCR24 Frameshift (can only correct +1 frame) 24.8 DCR25 Correctdownstream of exon 53 2.6 DCR26 Frameshift 24.5 DCR27 Correct downstreamof exon 54 13.4 DCR28 5′ splice acceptor 21.6 DCR29 Correct downstreamof exon 55 19.2 DCR30 Integrate minidys in exon 1 not tested DCR31Correct downstream of exon 51 18.9 DCR32 Delete stop codon not testedDCR33 Alternative to CR6 1.3 DCR34 Alternative to CR6 13.2 DCR35Alternative to CR7 22.5 DCR36 Alternative to CR7 26.4 DCR40 Disrupt exon23 5′ splice donor (correct mdx mutation) DCR41 Disrupt exon 23 5′splice donor (correct mdx mutation) DCR42 Delete exon 53 mdx4cv mutationDCR43 Disrupt myostatin receptor

TABLE 8 Name Cas9 Notes Cas9 used DCR49 S. Aureus Frameshift in exon 51SaCas9 (from Zhang pX441) (NNGRRT PAM) DCR50 S. Aureus Disrupt 5′ end ofexon 51 SaCas9 (from Zhang pX441) (NNGRR PAM) DCR60 N. NNNNGANN Target3′ splice donor of exon NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis 23 to bypass mdxmutation PAM) DCR61 N. NNNNGNNT Delete exon 23 and bypass NmCas9(NNNNGNNT Meningitidis mdx mutation PAM) DCR62 N. NNNNGANN Delete exon23 and bypass NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis mdx mutation PAM) DCR63 N.NNNNGTTN Delete exon 23 and bypass NmCas9 (NNNNGTTN Meningitidis mdxmutation PAM) DCR64 N. NNNNGNNT Delete exon 23 and bypass NmCas9(NNNNGNNT Meningitidis mdx mutation PAM) DCR65 N. NNNNGTTN Delete exon23 and bypass NmCas9 (NNNNGTTN Meningitidis mdx mutation PAM) DCR66 N.NNNNGANN Delete exon 23 and bypass NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis mdxmutation PAM) DCR67 N. NNNNGANN Target 3′ splice donor of exon NmCas9(NNNNGANN Meningitidis 51 to skip exon PAM) DCR68 N. NNNNGANN Target 3′splice donor of exon NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis 51 to skip exon PAM)DCR69 N. NNNNGANN Target 3′ splice donor of exon NmCas9 (NNNNGANNMeningitidis 51 to skip exon PAM) DCR70 N. NNNNGANN Frameshift in exon51 NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis PAM) DCR71 N. NNNNGNNT Frameshift inexon 51 NmCas9 (NNNNGNNT Meningitidis PAM) DCR72 N. NNNNGNNT Target 3′splice donor of exon NmCas9 (NNNNGNNT Meningitidis 51 to skip exon PAM)DCR73 N. NNNNGNNT Delete exon 51 (bind as close NmCas9 (NNNNGNNTMeningitidis to DCR5 as possible) PAM) DCR74 N. NNNNGANN Delete exon 51(bind as close NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis to DCR5 as possible) PAM)DCR75 N. NNNNGTTN Delete exon 51 (bind as close NmCas9 (NNNNGTTNMeningitidis to DCR5 as possible) PAM) DCR76 N. NNNNGNNT Delete exon 51(bind as close NmCas9 (NNNNGNNT Meningitidis to DCR1/2 as possible) PAM)DCR77 N. NNNNGTTN Delete exon 51 (bind as close NmCas9 (NNNNGTTNMeningitidis to DCR1/2 as possible) PAM) DCR78 N. NNNNGANN Delete exon51 (bind as close NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis to DCR1/2 as possible)PAM) DCR79 N. NNNNGNNT Delete exons 45-55-overlaps NmCas9 (NNNNGNNTMeningitidis NNNNGTTN PAM, bind as PAM) close to DCR6 as possible DCR80N. NNNNGANN Delete exons 45-55, bind as NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidisclose to DCR6 as possible PAM) DCR81 N. NNNNGTTN Delete exons 45-55,bind as NmCas9 (NNNNGTTN Meningitidis close to DCR6 as possible PAM)DCR82 N. NNNNGNNT Delete exons 45-55, bind as NmCas9 (NNNNGNNTMeningitidis close to DCR36 as possible- PAM) overlaps NNNNGTTN PAMDCR83 N. NNNNGTTN Delete exons 45-55, bind as NmCas9 (NNNNGTTNMeningitidis close to DCR36 as possible PAM) DCR84 N. NNNNGANN Deleteexons 45-55, bind as NmCas9 (NNNNGANN Meningitidis close to DCR36 aspossible PAM) DCR85 S. Aureus NNGRRT Delete exons 45-55, bind as SaCas9(from Zhang pX441) close to DCR6 as possible (NNGRRT PAM) DCR86 S.Aureus NNGRRT Delete exons 45-55, bind as SaCas9 (from Zhang pX441)close to DCR36 as possible (NNGRRT PAM)

In particular, 400 ng of Cas9 was co-transfected into HEK 293T cellswith either 400 ng of empty vector or gRNA that targets the regionencompassing Exon 51, i.e., CR1, CR2, CR3, CR4, and CR5 (see FIG. 11B).Genomic DNA was harvested at 2 days post-transfection and analyzed usingthe Surveyor assay (see FIGS. 11A and 11C).

The CRISPR/Cas9-based system was used in DMD 8036 (de148-50) cells todetermine if the system could repair a mutant dystrophin gene. 5 μg ofCas9 was co-transfected into DMD 8036 (de148-50) cells with either 7.5μg of empty vector or gRNA. In particular, 7.5 μg of CR1 (“DCR1”), 7.5μg of CR5 (“DCR5”), 15 μg of CR3 (“DCR3”) or 7.5 μg of a combination ofCR1 and CR5 (DCR1+DCR5) were used. Genomic DNA was harvested at 3 dayspost-transfection and analyzed using the Surveyor assay (FIG. 12) or PCRanalysis across the entire locus (FIG. 13). This locus was amplified byPCR using primers flanking the region containing the genomic targets forCR1 and CR5 (the forward primer: 5′-gagaggttatgtggctttacca (SEQ IDNO:457), the reverse primer: 5′-ctgcgtagtgccaaaacaaa (SEQ ID NO:458)),resulting in a 1447 bp band for the wild-type locus or an expected sizeof approximately 630 bp for the deleted locus. After 7 days ofdifferentiation, western blot of the treated cells shows expression ofdystrophin protein (see FIG. 14).

Example 5 Targeting CRISPR/Cas9 to Hotspot Mutations in the HumanDystrophin Gene

To utilize the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing platform for correcting a widerange of dystrophin mutations, dozens of sgRNAs targeted to the hotspotmutation region between exons 45-55 were created (FIGS. 16A-16D). The S.pyogenes system that utilizes a human-codon optimized SpCas9 nucleaseand a chimeric single-guide RNA (sgRNA) expression vector to guideefficient site-specific gene editing was used. Similar to Example 4targeting exon 51 with TALENs, protospacers were selected to target the5′ and 3′ ends of exons 45 through 55 which meet the 5′-NRG-3′ PAMrequirement of SpCas9. Small insertions or deletions created byNHEJ-based DNA repair within these exons can generate targetedframeshift mutations that address various dystrophin mutationssurrounding each exon (FIGS. 16A-16B). For example, CR3 was designed tocorrect dystrophin mutations or deletions surrounding exon 51 byintroducing small insertions or deletions in the 5′ end of exon 51 torestore the downstream dystrophin reading frame (FIG. 16B).Additionally, sgRNAs were designed to employ the multiplex capability ofthe CRISPR/Cas9 system and specifically delete individual exons or aseries of exons to restore the dystrophin reading frame, similar to themethods of oligonucleotide-based exon skipping. For this purpose, sgRNAswere targeted to the intronic regions surrounding exon 51 (FIG. 16C) orexons 45-55 (FIG. 16D). These sgRNAs were intentionally targeted tosites nearest to the downstream or upstream exon intended to be includedin the resulting transcript to minimize the likelihood that thebackground patient deletion would include the intronic sgRNA targetsites.

Example 6 Screening of sgRNAs Targeted to the Dystrophin Gene in HumanCells

Gene editing frequency in the human HEK293T cell line was assessed torapidly determine different sgRNA targeting efficiencies. HEK293Ts weretransfected with constructs encoding human codon-optimized SpCas9 andthe indicated sgRNA. Each sgRNA was designed to modify the dystrophingene as indicated. The frequency of gene modification at day 3 or day 10post-transfection was determined by the Surveyor assay. The ratio ofmeasured Surveyor signal at day 3 and day 10 was calculated to quantifythe stability of gene editing frequencies for each sgRNA in human cells.As quantified by the Surveyor assay 3 days post-transfection, 29/32(˜90%) of the sgRNAs tested were able to mediate highly efficient genemodification at the intended locus (Table 9, FIG. 17). The gene editingfrequencies were stable for almost all of the sgRNAs (<25% signal changefrom day 3 to day 10, Table 9, FIG. 18), indicating that gene editingmediated by each individual sgRNA was well-tolerated. A notableexception is CR33, which had no detectable activity at day 10, althoughactivity may be below the sensitivity of the Surveyor assay (est. ˜1%).

TABLE 9 Measured activity of sgRNAs in human cells % modified % modified% change alleles at alleles at day 10/ Target sgRNA # day 3 day 10 day 3Multiplex deletion of exon 51 Int 50 CR1 6.6 9.3 41.8 Int 50 CR2 10.314.0 36.2 Ex 51 CR4 11.9 14.4 21.3 Int 51 CR5 12.4 13.3 7.8 Multiplexdeletion of exons 45-55 Int 44 CR6 16.1 16.9 4.3 Int 44 CR33 1.3 <1 n.d.Int 44 CR34 13.2 11.0 −16.6 Int 55 CR7 6.8 7.1 5.3 Int 55 CR35 22.5 20.9−7.1 Int 55 CR36 26.4 24.7 −6.4 Targeted frameshifts Ex 45 CR10 14.916.3 9.3 Ex 45 CR11 <1 <1 n.d. Ex 46 CR12 <1 <1 n.d. Ex 46 CR13 16.918.4 9.2 Ex 47 CR14 17.2 17.6 2.9 Ex 47 CR15 15.4 15.3 −0.9 Ex 48 CR1611.5 10.9 −5.0 Ex 48 CR17 <1 <1 n.d. Ex 49 CR18 1.8 2.2 20.1 Ex 49 CR1933.7 38.4 13.9 Ex 50 CR20 14.9 13.7 −7.6 Ex 50 CR21 24.1 20.8 −13.5 Ex51 CR3 13.0 16.7 28.0 Ex 51 CR31 18.9 16.9 −10.2 Ex 52 CR22 25.9 20.3−21.6 Ex 52 CR23 25.2 24.0 −4.8 Ex 53 CR24 24.8 23.6 −4.6 Ex 53 CR25 2.62.9 9.5 Ex 54 CR26 24.5 22.0 −10.1 Ex 54 CR27 13.4 12.6 −5.9 Ex 55 CR2821.6 19.8 −8.4 Ex 55 CR29 19.2 19.6 2.2

Example 7 Enrichment of Gene-Edited Cells Using a Fluorescence-BasedReporter System

sgRNAs were selected to correct specific mutations in DMD patientmyoblast cell lines. After transfection into DMD myoblasts, unexpectedlylow or undetectable gene modification activity was observed as measuredby the Surveyor assay (FIG. 19C, bulk population). Flow cytometry wasused to select for transfected cells co-expressing GFP through a 2Aribosomal skipping peptide linked to the SpCas9 protein (FIG. 19A). Theaddition of this fluorescent reporter to the SpCas9 expression vectordid not seem to significantly impact gene editing activity in HEK293Tcells (FIG. 19B). A low percentage of transfected myoblasts (˜0.5-2%)expressed the fluorescent reporter at 3 days after electroporation,despite high transfection efficiencies of control GFP expressionplasmids (typically >70%, FIG. 19D, pmaxGFP). Given the high levels ofCRISPR/Cas9 activity in the easily transfected HEK293T line, inefficienttransgene expression after electroporation of SpCas9-T2A-GFP and sgRNAconstructs into the DMD cells may explain the low observed gene editingefficiencies in unsorted cells. After sorting the GFP-positive DMDmyoblasts, a substantial increase was observed in detectable activity atmost sgRNA target loci (FIG. 19C). Therefore, all subsequent experimentsused cells sorted for SpCas9 expression by expression of thisfluorescent reporter.

Example 8 Restoration of Dystrophin Expression by Targeted Frameshifts

Small insertions and deletions created by NHEJ DNA repair may be used tocreate targeted frameshifts to correct aberrant reading frames. A sgRNA,CR3, was designed to restore the dystrophin reading frame by introducingsmall insertions and deletions within exon 51 (FIGS. 16B, 20A). Thetypes of insertions and deletions generated by CRISPR/Cas9 at this locuswere assessed by Sanger sequencing of alleles from the genomic DNA ofHEK293T cells co-transfected with expression plasmids for SpCas9 and theCR3 sgRNA (FIG. 20B). Notably, the insertions and deletions resulted inconversion to all three reading frames (FIGS. 20B, 20C). To demonstrategenetic correction in a relevant patient cell line, expression plasmidsfor SpCas9 and the CR3 sgRNA were electroporated into a DMD myoblastline with a deletion of exons 48-50 that is correctable by creatingframeshifts in exon 51. The treated cells were sorted, verified to havegene modification activity by the Surveyor assay (CR3, FIG. 19C sortedpopulation), and differentiated into myotubes to test for restoreddystrophin expression. Expression of dystrophin protein was observedconcomitant with the detectable nuclease activity (FIG. 20D). The S.pyogenes CRISPR/Cas9 system presents a powerful method to quicklygenerate targeted frameshifts to address a variety of patient mutationsand restore expression of the human dystrophin gene.

Example 9 Multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing Mediates Genomic Deletionof Exon 51 and Rescues Dystrophin Protein Expression

The multiplexing capability of the CRISPR/Cas9 system presents a novelmethod to efficiently generate genomic deletions of specific exons fortargeted gene correction. DMD patient myoblasts with backgrounddeletions correctable by exon 51 skipping were treated with twocombinations of sgRNAs flanking exon 51 (CR1/CR5 or CR2/CR5) and sortedto enrich for gene-edited cells as in FIGS. 19A-19D. As detected byend-point PCR of the genomic DNA from these treated cells, the expectedgenomic deletions were only present when both sgRNAs were electroporatedinto the cells with SpCas9 (FIG. 21A). Sanger sequencing confirmed theexpected junction of the distal chromosomal segments (FIG. 21B) for bothdeletions. After differentiating the sorted myoblasts, a deletion ofexon 51 from the mRNA transcript was detected only in the cells treatedwith both sgRNAs (FIG. 21C). Finally, restored dystrophin proteinexpression was detected in the treated cells concomitant with observedgenome- and mRNA-level deletions of exon 51 (FIG. 21D).

Example 10 Dystrophin Rescue by a Multi-Exon Large Genomic Deletion

Although addressing patient-specific mutations is a powerful use of theCRISPR/Cas9 system, it would be advantageous to develop a single methodthat can address a myriad of common patient deletions. For example, apromising strategy is to exclude the entire exon 45-55 region as amethod to correct up to 62% of known patient deletions. MultiplexCRISPR/Cas9-based gene editing was tested to determine if it may be ableto generate efficient deletion of the exon 45-55 locus in human cells.After transfection into HEK293T cells, the expected deletion of 336,000bp was detected by PCR of the genomic DNA (FIG. 22A). Similarly, thisdeletion was detected by PCR of the genomic DNA fromSpCas9/sgRNA-treated DMD patient cells harboring a background deletionof exons 48-50 of unknown length (FIG. 22A). Sanger sequencing of thisdeletion band from the genomic DNA of treated DMD cells revealed theexpected junctions of intron 44 and intron 55 immediately adjacent tothe sgRNA target sites (FIG. 22B). After differentiation of treated DMDcells, the expected deletion of exons 45-55 was detected in thedystrophin mRNA transcript and verified to be a fusion of exons 44 and56 by Sanger sequencing (FIG. 22C). Restored protein expression wasobserved by western blot in the sorted cell populations containing theCRISPR/Cas9-induced deletion of exons 45-55 from the genome andresulting mRNA transcripts (FIG. 22D). These data demonstrate thatmultiplex CRISPR/Cas9 editing presents a single universal method torestore the dystrophin reading frame in more than 60% of DMD patientmutations.

Example 11 Transplantation of Corrected Myoblasts into ImmunodeficientMice

A promising method for DMD therapy is to correct a population ofautologous patient muscle progenitor cells that can be engrafted intothe patient's skeletal muscle tissue to rescue dystrophin expression. Todemonstrate the ability of the corrected cells to express humandystrophin in vivo, a population of DMD myoblasts that were treated withsgRNAs CR1 and CR5, which flank exon 51, was transplanted and sorted forexpression of GFP as before (FIGS. 19A-19D, FIG. 23). After 4 weeks,muscle fibers positive for human spectrin, which is expressed by bothcorrected and uncorrected cells, were detected in cryosections ofinjected muscle tissue (FIG. 24). A number of these fibers were alsopositive for human dystrophin with expression localized to thesarcolemma, demonstrating functional gene correction in these cells(FIG. 24, FIGS. 25A-25F). No fibers positive for human dystrophin wereobserved in sections from mice injected with the untreated DMD myoblasts(FIG. 24, FIGS. 25A-25F), indicating that the CRISPR/Cas9-modified cellswere the source of human dystrophin expression.

Example 12 Off-target and Cytotoxicity Analysis

The relative cytotoxicity of the CRISPR/Cas9 system was assessed inhuman cells for select sgRNAs by adapting a flow cytometry-based GFPretention assay as previously described (Ousterout et al., Mol Ther21:1718-1726 (2013)). Minimal cytotoxicity was observed for SpCas9co-expressed with or without sgRNAs after transfection into human cells(FIG. 26A). Publicly available tools are available to assess andprioritize potential CRISPR/Cas9 activity at off-target loci based onpredicted positional bias of a given mismatch in the sgRNA protospacersequence and the total number of mismatches to the intended target site(Hsu et al., Nat Biotechnol 31:827-826 (2013)). This public webserverwas used to predict the most likely off-target sites for the sgRNAs usedto correct the dystrophin gene in this study (Table 4). The top tenpotential off-target sites were assessed by the Surveyor assay inHEK293T cells treated with SpCas9 and individual sgRNA expressioncassettes for CR1, CR3, CR5, CR6, or CR36. CR1, CR3 and CR36 each hadone of these ten predicted off-target loci demonstrate significantlevels of gene modification (Table 4 and FIG. 27). Interestingly, theCR3 off-target sequence had substantial homology and similarmodification frequencies to the intended on-target (9.3% at OT-1 vs.13.3% at intended site (Table 4 and FIG. 27). Notably, CR3-OT1 was theonly one of these three off-target sites to show significant levels ofactivity in the sorted hDMD cells by the Surveyor assay (FIG. 26B).

Nuclease activity at off-target sites may cause unintended chromosomalrearrangements by distal re-ligation between cleaved target andoff-target loci on distinct chromosomes. This presents a significantconcern for deletion-based gene correction strategies due to theincreased potential for off-target activity by using two or morenucleases, such as in multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing. Potentialtranslocations were probed for using a highly sensitive nested genomicPCR assay to detect translocations at the validated off-target loci(Table 4) during both single and multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 editingstrategies. Using this assay, translocations were readily detectedbetween on-target and off-target sites in the model HEK293T cell linethat also shows high levels of off-target activity (FIG. 26C and FIG.28A, 28B). Sanger sequencing of the PCR amplicons confirmed the identityof the predicted translocation event for each primer pair (FIGS. 29-30).A subset of the translocations detected in the HEK293T cells were alsodetectable by nested PCR in the sorted hDMD myoblasts, although thesignal was considerably weaker and the sequence identity was notconfirmed due to low yield of product (FIG. 26D and FIGS. 28A, 28C).Translocations were not detected using this assay in HEK293T or sortedhDMD cells treated with CR6 or CR6/CR36, respectively, (FIGS. 28A-28C)that had low levels of off-target activity at CR6-OT3 only in HEK293Tcells (Table 4). These results underscore the importance of selectinghighly specific sgRNAs, particularly for multiplex editing applications,and show that this approach can benefit from ongoing efforts to improvethe specificity of the CRISPR/Cas9 system. These data suggest that theselected sgRNAs are able to correct the dystrophin gene withoutsignificant toxicity and with only a single strongly predictedoff-target site with detectable levels of activity.

Example 13 Discussion

Genome editing is a powerful tool for correcting genetic disease and therecent development of the CRISPR/Cas9 system is dramaticallyaccelerating progress in this area. The correction of DMD, the mostcommon genetic disease that also currently has no approved therapeuticoptions, was demonstrated. Many gene- and cell-based therapies for DMDare in preclinical development and clinical trials, and genome editingmethods are compatible with many of these approaches. For example,genome editing may be combined with patient-specific cell-basedtherapies for DMD. The CRISPR/Cas9 system may function in humanpluripotent stem cells and other human cell lines, as well as humanskeletal myoblasts, as shown. Importantly, gene editing with CRISPR/Cas9did not abolish the myogenic capacity of these cells, as demonstrated byefficient dystrophin expression in vitro and in vivo aftertransplantation into immunodeficient mice. Thus, this strategy should becompatible with cell-based therapies for DMD.

Additionally, an enriched pool of gene-corrected cells demonstratedexpression of human dystrophin in vivo following engraftment intoimmunodeficient mice. CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing did not have significanttoxic effects in human myoblasts as observed by stable gene editingfrequencies and minimal cytotoxicity of several sgRNAs. However, geneediting activity was confirmed at three out of 50 predicted off-targetsites across five sgRNAs and CRISPR/Cas9-induced chromosomaltranslocations between on-target and off-target sites were detectable.The CRISPR/Cas9 technology is an efficient and versatile method forcorrecting a significant fraction of dystrophin mutations and can serveas a general platform for treating genetic disease.

Additionally, direct transfection of the sgRNA and Cas9 mRNA, incontrast to the plasmid-based delivery method used here, may be used toincrease specificity and safety by reducing the duration of Cas9expression and eliminating the possibility of random plasmidintegration. Alternatively, delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 system directlyto skeletal and/or cardiac muscle by viral, plasmid, or RNA deliveryvectors may be used for in vivo genome editing and translation of thisapproach. The large size of S. pyogenes Cas9 gene (˜4.2 kilobases)presents a challenge to its use in size-restricted adeno-associatedviral vectors. However, Cas9 genes from other species, such as N.meningitidis and S. thermophilus, are short enough to efficientlypackage both Cas9 and sgRNA expression cassettes into single AAV vectorsfor in vivo gene editing applications.

The CRISPR/Cas9 system enabled efficient modification of nearly 90% oftested targets, consistent with other reports of robust activity of thissystem at diverse loci. The robustness and versatility of thistechnology is a significant advancement towards at-will creation ofpatient-specific gene editing. Low levels of dystrophin, including aslittle as 4% of wild-type expression, may be sufficient to improvesurvival, motor function, and cardiac function in a mouse model. Thelevels of CRISPR/Cas9 activity may be sufficient for therapeuticbenefit.

The use of multiplexing with CRISPR/Cas9 to delete exons also presents aunique set of opportunities and challenges. The deletion of completeexons from the genome to restore dystrophin expression was performed, incontrast to restoring the reading frame of the dystrophin gene withsmall indels generated by NHEJ-based DNA repair following the action ofa single nuclease. The protein product of the edited gene is predictableand already characterized in Becker muscular dystrophy patients with thenaturally occurring deletion, in contrast to the random indels createdby intraexonic action of a single nuclease that will lead to thecreation of novel epitopes from each DNA repair event. Furthermore, theproduct resulting from the exon deletions will lead to restoreddystrophin for every successful gene editing event, whereas modifyingthe gene with random indels within exons will only restore the readingframe in the one-third of editing events that leads to the correctreading frame.

All of the sgRNAs tested were not associated with significant cytotoxiceffects in human cells. Three potential off-target sites out of 50 totaltested sites for the five sgRNAs used were identified to restoredystrophin expression. Furthermore, chromosomal translocations betweenthe intended on-target sites and these off-target sites were detectableby highly sensitive nested PCR assays in HEK293T cells expressing highlevels of Cas9 and sgRNAs. Notably, the off-target activity andtranslocations identified in HEK293T cells, which is an immortalized andaneuploid cell line that expresses very high levels of Cas9 and sgRNA,did not occur at as high a level and in some cases were undetectable inthe hDMD myoblasts. Importantly, this level of specificity may betolerable given the severity of DMD, the lack of an apparent cytotoxiceffect in human cells

Example 14

An engineered AAV capsid, termed SASTG (FIG. 34; SEQ ID NOs: 436 and437), was developed for enhanced cardiac and skeletal muscle tissuetropism (Piacentino et al. (2012) Human Gene Therapy 23:635-646). A ZFNtargeting the Rosa26 locus (“Rosa26 ZFN”; FIG. 33; SEQ ID NO: 434 and435) was shown to be highly active in mouse cells (Perez-Pinera et al.Nucleic Acids Research (2012) 40:3741-3752). AAV-SASTG vectors encodingthe Rosa26 ZFN protein were designed and subsequently generated andpurified by the UNC Viral Vector Core. The Surveyor assay (Guschin etal., Methods Mol Biol 649, 247-256 (2010)) was used to demonstrate NHEJmutagenesis at the Rosa26 locus following delivery of AAV-SASTG Rosa26ZFNs in cultured C2C12 myoblasts that were actively cycling or forcedinto differentiation by serum removal (not shown).

To verify that adult post-mitotic skeletal muscle were efficientlytargeted by the Rosa26 ZFN following AAV transfer, AAV-SASTG vectorsencoding the Rosa26 ZFN were injected directly into the tibialisanterior (TA) muscle of 6 week old C57BL6/J mice at titers of 1e10vector genomes (vg) or 2.5e10 vg per muscle. Mice were sacrificed 4weeks after injection and the TA muscles were harvested and partitionedinto several fragments for genomic DNA extraction and analysis (FIG.31). Genomic DNA was PCR amplified and subjected to the Surveyor assayto detect NHEJ mutations characteristic of ZFN mutagenesis at the Rosa26target site (FIGS. 32A-32C). FIGS. 32A-32C show Surveyor analysis ofRosa26 ZFN activities in skeletal muscle in vitro and in vivo followingdelivery of AAV-SASTG-ROSA. Proliferating C2C12s were transduced withthe indicated amount of virus and harvested at 4 days post-infection(FIG. 32A). C2C12s were incubated in differentiation medium for 5 daysand then transduced with the indicated amount of AAV-SASTG-ROSA virus in24 well plates (FIG. 32B). Samples were collected at 10 dayspost-transduction. The indicated amount of AAV-SASTG-ROSA was injecteddirectly into the tibialis anterior of C57BL/6J mice and muscles wereharvested 4 weeks post-infection. The harvested TA muscles werepartitioned into 8 separate pieces for genomic DNA analysis, each shownin a separate lane (FIG. 32C). Notably, high levels of gene modificationwere detected in all fragments at the highest dose (2.5e10 vg).

Example 15 AAV-CRISPR Constructs for Targeting Mutant Dystrophin Genes

AAV constructs are designed to therapeutically correct mutations of thedystrophin gene that cause Duchenne muscular dystrophy and skeletal andcardiac muscle degeneration. CRISPR/Cas9 systems can be delivered usingthe AAV to restore the dystrophin reading frame by deleting exon 51,deleting exons 45-55, disrupting splice donor or acceptor sites, orcreating frameshifts within exon 51 (Ousterout et al., Molecular Therapy2013) to restore the dystrophin reading frame and protein expression.The CRISPR/Cas9 system will include a Cas9 having a sequence of SEQ IDNO: 64 or 114 (See FIGS. 40 and 41). gRNAs that could be combined withthese Cas9s, targeting their respective PAM sequences, are provided (seeFIGS. 40 and 41; see also Tables 2 and 3).

Example 16 Generation of Induced Neurons (iNs)

The generation of induced neurons (iNs) from other cell lineages haspotential applications in regenerative medicine and the study ofneurological diseases. The direct conversion of mouse embryonicfibroblasts (MEFs) to functional neuronal cells may occur through thedelivery of a cocktail of three neuronal transcription factors—BRN2,ASCL1, and MYT1L (BAM factors, FIG. 48). Other methods may includeadditional factors to induce various neuronal subtypes. Theseexperiments require transcription factors to be delivered ectopically,and the activation of the corresponding endogenous loci to sustain theneuronal phenotype. The CRISPR/Cas9 system was engineered as a versatiletranscription factor to activate endogenous genes in mammalian cellswith the capacity to target any promoter in the genome through anRNA-guided mechanism (FIGS. 49A,49B).

Materials & Methods. The CRISPR/Cas9-transcription factor was used toactivate the endogenous genes encoding ASCL1 and BRN2 to directlyreprogram MEFs to functional induced neurons.

Cell Culture: MEFs were seeded in either 24-well TCPS plates or onpoly-D-lysine/laminin-coated coverslips. Following transduction ofdCas9-VP64 and transfection of the gRNAs (see Tables 10 and 11 forsequences of gRNAs), the cells were cultured in MEF medium (Adler et al.Mol Ther Nucleic Acids 1:e32 (2012)) for 24 hrs and then transferred toN3 neural induction medium (Vierbuchen et al. Nature 463:1035-1041(2010)) for the duration of the experiment (FIG. 49B).

TABLE 10 gRNAs for mouse ASCL1 (CR13): SEQ Oligo 5′ ASCL1 ID (5′ to 3′)overhang Target Sequence NO CR13-1_S: cacc G CAGCCGCTCGCTGCAGCAG 492(SEQ ID NO: 468) CR13-1_AS: AAAC CTGCTGCAGCGAGCGGCTG C 493(SEQ ID NO: 469) CR13-2_S: cacc G GCTGGGTGTCCCATTGAAA 494(SEQ ID NO: 470) CR13-2_AS: AAAC TTTCAATGGGACACCCAGC C 495(SEQ ID NO: 471) CR13-3_S: cacc G GTTTATTCAGCCGGGAGTC 496(SEQ ID NO: 472) CR13-3_AS: AAAC GACTCCCGGCTGAATAAAC C 497(SEQ ID NO: 473) CR13-4_S: cacc G TGGAGAGTTTGCAAGGAGC 498(SEQ ID NO: 474) CR13-4_AS: AAAC GCTCCTTGCAAACTCTCCA C 499(SEQ ID NO: 475) CR13-5_S: cacc G CCCTCCAGACTTTCCACCT 500(SEQ ID NO: 476) CR13-5_AS: AAAC AGGTGGAAAGTCTGGAGGG C 501(SEQ ID NO: 477) CR13-6_S: cacc G AATTTTCTTCCAAGTTCTC 502(SEQ ID NO: 478) CR13-6_AS: AAAC GAGAACTTGGAAGAAAATT C 503(SEQ ID NO: 479) CR13-7_S: cacc G CTGCGGAGAGAAGAAAGGG 504(SEQ ID NO: 480) CR13-7_AS: AAAC CCCTTTCTTCTCTCCGCAG C 505(SEQ ID NO: 481) CR13-8_S: cacc G AGAGCCACCCCCTGGCTCC 506(SEQ ID NO: 482) CR13-8_AS: AAAC GGAGCCAGGGGGTGGCTCT C 507(SEQ ID NO: 483) CR13-9_S: cacc G cgaagccaaccgcggcggg 508(SEQ ID NO: 484) CR13-9_AS: AAAC cccgccgcggttggcttcg C 509(SEQ ID NO: 485) CR13-10_S: cacc G agagggaagacgatcgccc 510(SEQ ID NO: 486) CR13-10_AS: AAAC gggcgatcgtcttccctct C 511(SEQ ID NO: 487) CR13-11_S: cacc G cccctttaactttcctccg 512(SEQ ID NO: 488) CR13-11_AS: AAAC cggaggaaagttaaagggg C 513(SEQ ID NO: 489) CR13-12_S: cacc G gcagccccgcttccttcaa 514(SEQ ID NO: 490) CR13-12_AS: AAAC ttgaaggaagcggggctgc C 515(SEQ ID NO: 491)

TABLE 11 gRNAs for mouse BRN2 (CR16): SEQ Oligo 5′ BRN2 ID (5′ to 3′)overhang Target Sequence NO CR16-1_S: cacc G CGAGAGCGAGAGGAGGGAG 540(SEQ ID NO: 516) CR16-1_AS: AAAC CTCCCTCCTCTCGCTCTCG C 541(SEQ ID NO: 517) CR16-2_S: cacc G GAGAGAGCTTGAGAGCGCG 542(SEQ ID NO: 518) CR16-2_AS: AAAC CGCGCTCTCAAGCTCTCTC C 543(SEQ ID NO: 519) CR16-3_S: cacc G GGTGGAGGGGGCGGGGCCC 544(SEQ ID NO: 520) CR16-3_AS: AAAC GGGCCCCGCCCCCTCCACC C 545(SEQ ID NO: 521) CR16-4_S: cacc G GGTATCCACGTAAATCAAA 546(SEQ ID NO: 522) CR16-4_AS: AAAC TTTGATTTACGTGGATACC C 547(SEQ ID NO: 523) CR16-5_S: cacc G CCAATCACTGGCTCCGGTC 548(SEQ ID NO: 524) CR16-5_AS: AAAC GACCGGAGCCAGTGATTGG C 549(SEQ ID NO: 525) CR16-6_S: cacc G GGCGCCCGAGGGAAGAAGA 550(SEQ ID NO: 526) CR16-6_AS: AAAC TCTTCTTCCCTCGGGCGCC C 551(SEQ ID NO: 527) CR16-7_S: cacc G GGGTGGGGGTACCAGAGGA 552(SEQ ID NO: 528) CR16-7_AS: AAAC TCCTCTGGTACCCCCACCC C 553(SEQ ID NO: 529) CR16-8_S: cacc G CCGGGGACAGAAGAGAGGG 554(SEQ ID NO: 530) CR16-8_AS: AAAC CCCTCTCTTCTGTCCCCGG C 555(SEQ ID NO: 531) CR16-9_S: cacc G gagagagagtgggagaagc 556(SEQ ID NO: 532) CR16-9_AS: AAAC gcttctcccactctctctc C 557(SEQ ID NO: 533) CR16-10_S: cacc G aaagtaactgtcaaatgcg 558(SEQ ID NO: 534) CR16-10_AS: AAAC cgcatttgacagttacttt C 559(SEQ ID NO: 535) CR16-11_S: cacc G ttaaccagagcgcccagtc 560(SEQ ID NO: 536) CR16-11_AS: AAAC gactgggcgctctggttaa C 561(SEQ ID NO: 537) CR16-12_S: cacc G cgtcggagctgcccgctag 562(SEQ ID NO: 538) CR16-12_AS: AAAC ctagcgggcagctccgacg C 563(SEQ ID NO: 539)

qRT-PCR & IF: Activation of endogenous ASCL1 was assessed by qRT-PCR andimmunofluorescence in MEFs on day 3 following delivery of eitherdCas9-VP64 and gRNAs, ASCL1 cDNA, or a negative control vector encodingluciferase. The generation of iNs was evaluated by TUJ1 and MAP2co-staining and identification of cells with neuronal morphology andextended processes.

Live Cell Reporters: After 7-8 days in N3 medium, MEFs cultured onpoly-D-lysine/laminin-coated coverslips were transduced with virusescarrying hSyn-RFP and MAP2-GCamP5 reporters to identify the most matureiNs for functional characterization via calcium imaging andelectrophysiology (FIG. 49B).

Results. dCas9-VP64 and gRNAs targeted to the ASCL1 promoter activatedthe endogenous gene in MEFs. Co-delivery of 8 gRNAs activated theendogenous gene 400-fold, a significant increase (p<0.05) over the100-fold activation induced by the co-delivery of 4 gRNAs (FIG. 50A).Nuclear-localized Ascl1 protein was detected by immunofluorescence inMEFs. Ectopic Ascl1 expression produced more Ascl1 protein thandCas9-VP64 with either gRNA cocktail, but did not activate theendogenous locus by day 3 (FIG. 50A,50B). TUB and MAP2 co-positive cellswith extended processes were identified by immunofluorescence after 13days in neurogenic medium following delivery of dCas9-VP64 and gRNAstargeting the ASCL1 and BRN2 promoters (FIG. 51A first row). A similarnumber of TUB and MAP2 co-positive cells were identified with ectopicexpression of the BAM factors (FIG. 51A second row). Cells with aneuronal morphology expressing the hSyn-RFP reporter were visible inculture as early as day 11 in neurogenic medium (FIG. 51B). A cellexpressing the MAP2-GCaMP5 calcium indicator exhibited KC1-induceddepolarization detected with a fluorescent microscope (FIG. 52A,52B).

The direct conversion of mouse embryonic fibroblasts to TUB and MAP2co-positive cells with a neuronal morphology was accomplished throughactivation of endogenous BRN2 and ASCL1 by CRISPR/Cas9-basedtranscription factors. Though dCas9-VP64 produces less protein thanectopic expression of ASCL1 (FIG. 50B), the generation of neuronal-likecells is similar. The activation of the endogenous loci may induce areprogramming cascade of events that is not mechanistically identical tothat generated with ectopic expression.

dCas9-VP64 was able to penetrate heterochromatin and activated stablysilenced endogenous genes, a characteristic of only a subset of“pioneer” transcription factors. As a result, converting cell lineagewith CRISPR/Cas9-transcription factors may better overcome epigeneticbarriers to reprogramming than ectopic expression of transcriptionfactors, particularly in hard-to-reprogram cell-types, such as adulthuman cells. This may have clinical importance in the field ofregenerative medicine, as it is often desired to use autologous sourcesin cell replacement therapies.

Example 17 Multiplex CRISPR/Cas9-Based Genome Engineering—Materials andMethods

Plasmid constructs. The expression cassettes for the S. pyogenes sgRNAand human codon optimized Cas9 (hCas9) nuclease were used, as describedabove. Additional promoters for mU6 (Ohshima et al., Nucleic Acids Res9:5145-5158 (1981)), H1 (Myslinski et al., Nucleic Acids Res29:2502-2509 (2001)), and 7SK (Murphy et al., Cell 51:81-87 (1987))pol-III promoters were synthesized using GeneBlocks (IDT) and cloned inplace of the hU6 sgRNA expression cassette. A GeneBlock (IDT) was clonedonto the 3′ end of the Cas9 coding sequence to fuse a T2A skippingpeptide and eGFP gene immediately after Cas9 to monitor vectorexpression. The coding region for hCas9-T2A-GFP (SEQ ID NO: 145) wasthen transferred into a lentiviral expression vector containing thehuman ubiquitin C (hUbC) promoter to drive expression of hCas9-T2A-GFP,as well as restriction sites to facilitate Golden Gate cloning of sgRNAexpression cassettes immediately upstream of the hUbC promoter (FIG.42A).

Protocol for assembly of custom lentiviral vectors. Assembly of customlentiviral vectors expressing up to four sgRNAs of choice and activeCas9, dCas9, or dCas9-VP64 was accomplished in less than five days. Thecloning method used the Golden Gate cloning and type IIS restrictionenzymes that cleave outside their recognition sequence to create uniqueoverhangs. Golden Gate assembly expedited cloning as all four expressioncassettes were ligated into the final lentiviral vector in one step. Thelentiviral vector expressed active Cas9, cCas9, or dCas9-VP64 inaddition to one, two, three, or four sgRNAs expressed from independentpromoters.

Step 1: Single stranded oligos containing each 20 bp protospacer wereannealed in such a fashion to create sticky ends and were ligated intothe desired pZDonor-promoter vector. Order two single stranded oligosfor each desired genomic target. To anneal the complimentary oligos, mix8 μL sense oligo+8 μL antisense oligo (both at 10 mM)+2 μL 10× ligasebuffer. The oligos are melted and reannealed in a PCR machine with theprogram: 96° C. for 300 seconds, followed by 85° C. for 20 seconds, 75°C. for 20 seconds, 65° C. for 20 seconds, 55° C. for 20 seconds, 45° C.for 20 seconds, 35° C. for 20 seconds, and 25° C. for 20 seconds with a−0.3° C./second rate between steps. To phosphorylate the sticky ends,add 1 μL 25 mM ATP+1 microliter T4 Polynucleotide Kinase (NEB) andincubate at 37° C. for 60 minutes followed by 65° C. for 20 minutes toheat inactivate the enzyme. Each protospacer was ligated into thedesired expression vector using T4 DNA ligase (NEB) incubated at 16° C.for 60 minutes using 50ng of vector and 1 μL, of annealedoligonucleotides in a 10 pt. reaction volume according to manufacturer'sinstructions. Five microliters of each ligation was transformed into XL1blue chemically competent bacteria (Agilent) following themanufacturer's instructions. Plate transformation onto LB agar platescontaining 50 μg/mL, kanamycin (Sigma) and incubate overnight at 37° C.In our experience, >90% of the colonies will contain the desiredligation product. Sequencing using the M13 reverse standard sequencingprimer was performed to validate each final sgRNA construct prior tomoving onto step 2.

Step 2: Construct the four promoter-gRNA cassettes into a lentiviraldestination vector using Golden Gate assembly. After completion of step1, there are four independent plasmids each expressing a different sgRNAfrom a different promoter. To assemble the four different promoter-sgRNAconstructs into the desired destination vector, combine 200 ng of eachsgRNA expression plasmid and desired lentiviral destination vector with1L of T4 DNA ligase (NEB), 1 μL BsmBI FastDigest (Fisher Scientific),and 2 μL 10× T4 ligase buffer (NEB) in a 20 pt reaction volume. Incubatethe reaction as follows: 37° C. for 10 minutes, 16° C. for 15 minutes,37° C. for 30 minutes, 80° C. for 5 minutes. Transform 5 μL of ligationreaction into SURE 2 chemically competent cells (Agilent) following themanufacturer's instructions. Plate transformations onto LB agar platescontaining 100 μg/mL ampicillin and incubate overnight at 37° C.Optionally, colonies can be screened by lacZ-based blue/white screeningusing IPTG and X-gal; however, in our experience, >90% of thetransformants contain the proper ligation product. Due to the invertedrepeats formed by the opposing sgRNA expression cassettes, the finalconstructs may be unstable and thus we recommend maintaining theseplasmids in the SURE 2 cell line and screening the final plasmid with atest PCR using the sense primer 5′-TCGGGTTTATTACAGGGACAGCAG-3′ (SEQ IDNO:464) and antisense primer 5′-TCTAAGGCCGAGTCTTATGAGCAG-3′ (SEQ IDNO:465). These primers amplify across the four promoter-gRNA region. Dueto the repetitive nature, a distinct banding pattern should be observedwith the largest product approximately 1800 bp in size.

Cell culture and transfection. HEK293T cells were obtained from theAmerican Tissue Collection Center (ATCC, Manassas, Va.) through the DukeUniversity Cancer Center Facilities and were maintained in DMEMsupplemented with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin streptomycin. Primary humandermal fibroblasts (Catalog ID: GM03348) were obtained from CoriellInstitute (Camden, N.J.) and were maintained in DMEM supplemented with10% FBS and 1% penicillin streptomycin. All cells were cultured at 37°C. with 5% CO₂. HEK293T cells were transfected with Lipofectamine 2000(Life Technologies) with 200 ng of each sgRNA expression vector (800 ngtotal pDNA) according to the manufacturer's protocol in 24 well plates.

Viral production and transduction. All lentiviral vectors used is thisstudy are second generation and were produced using standard viralproduction methods. Briefly, 3.5 million HEK293Ts were plated per 10 cmdish. The following day, cells were transfected by the calcium phosphatetransfection method with 20 μg of transfer vector, 6 μg of pMD2G, and 10μg psPAX2. The media was changed 12-14 hrs post transfection. The viralsupernatant was collected 24 and 48 hrs after this media change, passedthrough a 0.45 micron filter and pooled. For transduction, the cellmedium was replaced with viral supernatant supplemented with 4 μg/mLpolybrene. The viral supernatant was exchanged for fresh medium 12-24hrs later.

Reverse Transcription PCR. RNA was isolated using the miRNeasy Mini RNAisolation kit (Qiagen). DNAse digestion was performed using the DNA-freeKit (Applied Biosystems). cDNA synthesis was performed using theSuperScript VILO cDNA Synthesis Kit (Invitrogen). cDNA was PCR amplifiedusing Taq DNA polymerase (NEB) and the resulting product was run on TAEagarose gels. Images were captured using a ChemiDoc XRS+ System andprocessed using ImageLab software (Bio-Rad).

Quantitative Real Time PCR. RNA was isolated using the RNeasy Plus RNAisolation kit (Qiagen). cDNA synthesis was performed using theSuperScript VILO cDNA Synthesis Kit (Invitrogen). Real-time PCR usingPerfeCTa SYBR Green FastMix (Quanta Biosciences) was performed with theCFX96 Real-Time PCR Detection System (Bio-Rad). Primer specificity wasconfirmed by agarose gel electrophoresis and melting curve analysis.Reaction efficiencies over the appropriate dynamic range were calculatedto ensure linearity of the standard curve. The results are expressed asfold-increase mRNA expression of the gene of interest normalized toβ-Actin expression using the ΔΔCt method. Reported values are the meanand S.E.M. from two independent experiments (n=2) where technicalreplicates were averaged for each experiment.

Western Blot. Cells were lysed in RIPA Buffer (Sigma) supplemented withprotease inhibitor cocktail (Sigma). Protein concentration was measuredusing BCA protein assay reagent (Thermo Scientific) and BioTek Synergy 2Multi-Mode Microplate Reader. Lysates were mixed with loading buffer andboiled for 5 min; 25 μg of protein were run in NuPage 10% Bis-Tris Gelpolyacrylamide gels (Bio-Rad) and transferred to nitrocellulosemembranes. Nonspecific antibody binding was blocked with TBST (50 mMTris, 150 mM NaCl and 0.1% Tween-20) with 5% nonfat milk for 1 hr atroom temperature. The membranes were incubated with primary antibodies:(anti-MyoD (1:250, Santa Cruz Sc-32758) in 5% BSA in TBST overnight at4° C.; anti-Myogenin (1:250, Santa Cruz Sc-12732) in 5% BSA overnight at4° C.; anti-FLAG-HRP (1:1000, Cell Signaling 2044) in 5% milk in TB STfor 60 min at room temperature; anti-GAPDH (1:5000, Cell Signaling,clone 14C10) in 5% milk in TBST for 30 min at room temperature.Membranes were then washed three times with TB ST for 15 minutes total.Membranes were incubated with anti-rabbit HRP-conjugated antibody(Sigma, A 6154) or anti-mouse HRP-conjugated antibody (Santa Cruz,S.C.-2005) diluted 1:5,000 for 30 min and washed with TBST three timesfor 15 min each. Membranes were visualized using the ImmunStar WesternCChemiluminescence Kit (Bio-Rad) and images were captured using aChemiDoc XRS+ System and processed using ImageLab software (Bio-Rad).

CeI-I quantification of endogenous gene modification. CRISPR/Cas9nuclease lesions at the endogenous target site were quantified using theSurveyor nuclease assay, which can detect mutations characteristic ofnuclease-mediated NHEJ. After transfection or transduction, cells wereincubated for 3-10 days at 37° C. and genomic DNA was extracted usingthe DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit (Qiagen). The target locus was amplifiedby 35 cycles of PCR with the AccuPrime High Fidelity PCR kit(Invitrogen). The resulting PCR products were randomly melted andreannealed in a PCR machine with the program: 95° C. for 240 seconds,followed by 85° C. for 60 seconds, 75° C. for 60 seconds, 65° C. for 60seconds, 55° C. for 60 seconds, 45° C. for 60 seconds, 35° C. for 60seconds, and 25° C. for 60 seconds with a −0.3° C./second rate betweensteps. Following re-annealing, 8 μL of PCR product was mixed with 1 μLof Surveyor Nuclease S and 1 μL of Enhancer S (Transgenomic, Omaha,Nebr.) and incubated at 42° C. for 1 hr. After incubation, 6 μL ofdigestion product was loaded onto a 10% TBE polyacrylamide gel and runat 200 V for 30 minutes. The gels were stained with ethidium bromide andquantified using ImageLab (Bio-Rad) by densitometry (Perez-Pinera etal., Nucleic Acids Res 40:3741-3751 (2012)).

Statistical Analysis. At least two independent experiments were compiledas means and standard errors of the mean. Effects were evaluated withmultivariate ANOVA and Dunnett's post hoc test using JMP 10 Pro.

Example 18 Development of a Single Lentiviral Vector for MultiplexCRISPR/Cas9 Applications

A limitation of current CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing systems, particularlytransactivator systems, is the simultaneous and efficient delivery ofmultiple sgRNAs and Cas9 protein for multiplex gene editing andsynergistic gene activation applications, especially in difficult totransfect cell types. To overcome this limitation, we developed a singlelentiviral vector that efficiently expresses Cas9 and up to four sgRNAs.In order to maximize the expression efficiency of each sgRNA, thisvector expresses four sgRNAs from four independent pol III promoters(human U6 promoter, mouse U6 promoter, 7SK, and H1). We validated sgRNAexpression from each promoter using end-point RT-PCR to detect a sgRNAtargeting the AAVS1 locus (FIG. 42A). To test the activity of each sgRNAexpression construct, we co-transfected each promoter constructexpressing an sgRNA targeting AAVS1 independently with an active Cas9expression construct into human HEK293T cells. Notably, we detectedconsistent and high levels of gene modification at the target locus foreach sgRNA that are comparable to a well-characterized zinc-fingernuclease with high activity at the AAVS1 locus (FIG. 42B). Furthermore,lentiviral delivery of different Cas9-based constructs, including anactive Cas9 nuclease, dead Cas9, and dead Cas9 fused to the VP64transactivator domain, resulted in expression of full-length Cas9protein in HEK293T cells as determined by western blot (FIG. 42C).

Using these components, we developed a Golden Gate cloning method tofacilitate rapid and efficient cloning of multiple sgRNA expressioncassettes into a single lentiviral vector expressing the desired Cas9effector (FIG. 43). In the first step, oligonucleotides encoding sgRNAprotospacer sequences are cloned independently into different expressionvectors, each with a distinct promoter driving sgRNA expression. In thesecond step, each sgRNA expression construct is subcloned into alentiviral Cas9 expression vector of choice by Golden Gate assembly.This strategy allows for robust and rapid cloning of up to four sgRNAsinto a single lentiviral vector for gene editing or activationapplications. To express less than four sgRNAs, a PolyT terminatorsequence is cloned down-stream of unused promoters to preventtranscription from the unused promoters. Each vector co-expresses thechoice Cas9 with eGFP via a 2A skipping peptide to enablefluorescence-activated flow sorting and enrichment of cells with a highmultiplicity of infection. Finally, the entire region containing thesgRNA and Cas9 expression cassettes is flanked by loxP sites to mediateremoval by Cre-lox excision.

Example 19 Validation of a Single Lentiviral sgRNA/Cas9 ExpressionVector for Multiplex Genome Engineering

To validate the independent activity of each sgRNA, we assembled asingle lentiviral vector expressing active Cas9 and four sgRNAs, eachtargeting an independent loci (FIG. 44A). As control vectors, weassembled constructs expressing only one sgRNA along with polyTprotospacers in the other three positions. We transduced HEK293Ts andprimary fibroblasts with lentiviral vectors expressing the indicatedsgRNAs and monitored gene modification frequencies at 7 or 10 dayspost-transduction, respectively (FIG. 44B). In both cell types, thesingle lentiviral vector mediated highly efficient multiplex editing atall four loci (FIG. 44B). Interestingly, expression of all four sgRNAstogether resulted in higher modification frequencies than a single sgRNAalone at 3 out of 4 loci in fibroblasts (FIG. 44B). We observedefficient multiplex gene editing in fibroblasts, which areconventionally a difficult to transfect cell type. These datademonstrate that a single lentivirus can express four active sgRNAsefficiently and that this lentiviral platform can be used to target fourdistinct loci for multiplex CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing.

Example 20 Transient RNA-Guided Gene Activation in Cell Lines StablyExpressing a Lentiviral Cas9-Based Transactivator

Next, we were interested in developing a system that enables transientgene activation by transfecting sgRNAs into model cell lines stablyexpressing Cas9. HEK293Ts were transduced with different Cas9-T2A-GFPand GFP expression was monitored using flow cytometry. Following normalpassaging every 2-3 days, each cell line exhibited stable GFP expressionfor up to 35 days post transduction. Transduced HEK293Ts were thentransfected with one to four separate sgRNA expression constructstargeting either the IL1RN or HBG1 promoter. Transient transfection ofthese sgRNA constructs in stable dCas9-VP64 expressing cells linesresulted in tunable endogenous gene activation (FIGS. 45A,45B). Geneactivation following transient transfection of sgRNA constructs in cellsexpressing dCas9-VP64 reached a maximum level of activationapproximately 3-6 post-transfection and fell to undetectable levels by20 days post-transfection (FIGS. 45C,45D). Furthermore, we were able tore-activate each gene by a second transfection of all four sgRNAconstructs targeting each promoter, although activation levels weresignificantly lower than observed from the first transfection (FIGS.45C, 45D). This reduction in activity after the second transfection maybe due to reduced vector expression or competitive growth ofuntransduced cells. Despite this, these data demonstrate that lentiviralCas9 combined with transient sgRNA delivery can be used as a versatilesystem to tunably and transiently activate and re-activate target genesin a Cas9 stably tranduced cell line.

Example 21 Stable Gene Activation in HEK293TCells Using a SingleLintiviral sgRNA/Cas9 Transactivator Expression Vector

Lentiviral delivery may enable stable, long-term gene activation byCRISPR/Cas9 transactivation. To test this, HEK293Ts were transducedusing a single lentiviral vector encoding dCas9-VP64 and one to foursgRNA expression cassettes. Similar to our transient transfectionresults (FIGS. 45A-45D), we were able to tunably and robustly activateexpression of endogenous IL1RN and HBG1 genes (FIGS. 46A,46B). Geneactivation induced by co-transfection of HEK293T cells with dCas9-VP64and four sgRNAs targeted to the IL1RN and HBG1 promoters peakedthree-five days post-transfection and gene expression returned tobackground levels 15-20 days post-transfection FIGS. 45C and 45D. Incontrast, lentiviral delivery of dCas9-VP64 and the same four IL1RN orHBG1-targeted sgRNAs induced sustained gene activation for more than 20days post-transduction (FIGS. 46C,46D). Thus, single lentiviral deliveryof multiplex dCas9-VP64 transactivators is a useful platform toefficiently and stably upregulate target endogenous genes.

Example 22 dCas9-KRAB—Targeting the HS2 Enhancer

The HS2 enhancer is a well-characterized distal regulatory elementnecessary for activation of the globin gene locus. dCas9-KRAB with gRNAstargeted to the HS2 enhancer were delivered to determine if this systemwould repress γ-, ε-, and β-globin expression in the K562 humanerythroid leukemia cell line (FIG. 54). A panel of gRNAs was createdtargeting different sites along the core region of the HS2 enhancer (SEQID NO: 467). See Table 12.

TABLE 12 HS2 gRNA Target Sequences Cr# ProtospacerComplete gRNA Sequence  1 gagacacacagaaatgtaacgagacacacagaaatgtaacgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 564)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 585) 2 ggtggggcactgaccccgacggtggggcactgaccccgacgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 565)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 586) 3 ctagagtgatgactcctatcctagagtgatgactcctatcgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 566)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 587) 4 gactaaaactccacctcaaagactaaaactccacctcaaagtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 567)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 588) 5 aatatgtcacattctgtctcaatatgtcacattctgtctcgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAAG (SEQ ID NO: 568)GCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGTG CTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 589) 6 ggactatgggaggtcactaaggactatgggaggtcactaagtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 569)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 590) 7 gctcatgcttggactatggggctcatgcttggactatggggtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 570)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 591) 8 gttctggccaggcccctgtcgttctggccaggcccctgtcgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 571)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 592) 9 agtgccccacccccgccttcagtgccccacccccgccttcgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 572)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 593)10 gtggggcactgaccccgacagtggggcactgaccccgacagtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 573)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 594)11 aaccttctaagcaaaccttcaaccttctaagcaaaccttcgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 574)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 595)12 gttacacagaaccagaaggcgttacacagaaccagaaggcgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 575)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 596)13 gaaggttacacagaaccagagaaggttacacagaaccagagtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 576)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 597)14 agtcatgatgagtcatgctgagtcatgatgagtcatgctggtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 577)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 598)15 gatgagtcatgctgaggcttgatgagtcatgctgaggcttgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 578)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 599)16 actctaggctgagaacatctactctaggctgagaacatctgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 579)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 600)17 gtccccagcaggatgcttacgtccccagcaggatgcttacgtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 580)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 601)18 gccctgtaagcatcctgctggccctgtaagcatcctgctggtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 581)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 602)19 cagggcagatggcaaaaaaacagggcagatggcaaaaaaagtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 582)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 603)20 gaggtggagttttagtcagggaggtggagttttagtcagggtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAA (SEQ ID NO: 583)GGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGGT GCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 604)21 aaacggcatcataaagaaaaaaacggcatcataaagaaaagtttTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATA (SEQ ID NO: 584)AGGCTAGTCCGTTATCAACTTGAAAAAGTGGCACCGAGTCGG TGCTTTTTTTCC (SEQ ID NO: 605)

Screening single gRNAs at the globin locus by CRISPR/dCas9. dCas9 anddCas9-KRAB effectors were delivered lentivirally 5-8 days prior toelectroporation with 5 μg of a plasmid encoding the U6-sgRNA expression(FIG. 55A). Cells that were not electroporated with gRNA (no gRNA) andcells treated with a gRNA targeting a different locus (IL1RN) wereincluded as controls. Multiple gRNAs effected potent repression of ε-,γ-, and β-globin genes when assayed 3 days post-transfection, with up to80% knockdown achieved (FIGS. 55B, 55C, 55D). Expressing a gRNA witheither dCas9 or dCas9-KRAB inhibited gene expression at the globinlocus. Generally, treatment with dCas9-KRAB resulted in strongerrepression for a given gRNA compared to dCas9 alone, suggesting animportant role for the KRAB domain in recruiting heterochromatin factorsthat enhance repression. The repression levels achieved are dependent onthe amount of gRNA plasmid delivered by transfection only in thedCas9-KRAB treated cells (FIGS. 56A, 56B, 56C). Increasing the dose ofCr4 gRNA plasmid up to 10 increases silencing levels of the globin genesin dCas9-KRAB-treated cells.

Stable silencing of globin genes by dCas9-KRAB. dCas9/dCas9-KRAB wereco-expressed with single gRNAs lentivirally in K562s (FIG. 57A). Cellsthat were not treated with lentivirus (NT), treated withdCas9/dCas9-KRAB without a gRNA (no gRNA), and with dCas9/dCas9-KRAB andgRNA targeting a different locus (IL1RN) were included as controls.Cells treated with lentivirus were selected from days 4 to 7. MultiplegRNAs effected potent transcriptional repression of ε-, γ-, and β-globingenes when assayed 7 days after transduction, with up to 95% knockdownachieved (FIGS. 57B, 57C, 57D). Expression of ε-globin was silenced themost in response gRNAs targeted to the HS2 enhancer. Treatment withdCas9-KRAB with a gRNA resulted in dramatically more repression thantreatment with dCas9 and gRNA.

These findings demonstrate that dCas9-KRAB targeted to the HS2 enhancerby gRNAs effects potent repression of the distal globin genes. This isthe first example of targeted epigenetic control of distal regulatoryelements in mammalian cells by the CRISPR/Cas9 system. Enhancersregulate development and disease, and this disclosure provides a methodto probe and control enhancer function and may be used to determine theeffects of dCas9-KRAB on local chromatin accessibility and genome-wideexpression.

Example 23 dCas9-p300

A dCas9-p300 fusion protein was designed and compared to dCas9-VP64fusion protein (see FIG. 59). The amino acid constructs of dCas9constructions are shown in FIG. 61A-61C. Cells from the Human EmbryonicKidney tissue culture line HEK293T (ATCC; CRL-11268) were seeded at adensity of 1.5e5 cells per well in 24-well tissue culture dishes one dayprior to transfection with Lipofectamine 2000 transfection reagent (LifeTechnologies). 24 hrs later cells were transfected with 1 μLLipofectamine 2000, 375 ng dCas9 expression construct (dCas9, dCas9VP64,or dCas9p300 respectively), and 125 ng of pooled gRNA expressionplasmids (4 each at equimolar ratios). Table 13 shows the gRNAinformation.

TABLE 13 gRNA information Genomic Tar- Location get Protospacer (GRCh38Loca- Sequence Primary tion (5′-3′) Assembly) Reference IL1RN TGTACTCTCTGAGGTGCTC Chr2:  Perez-Pinera Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 606) 113117865-et al., moter 113117883 Nat Methods, 2013 IL1RN  ACGCAGATAAGAACCAGTTChr2:  Perez-Pinera  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 607) 113117714- et al.,  moter113117732 Nat Methods, 2013 IL1RN  CATCAAGTCAGCCATCAGC Chr2: Perez-Pinera  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 608) 113117781- et al.,  moter 113117799Nat Methods, 2013 IL1RN  GAGTCACCCTCCTGGAAAC Chr2:  Perez-Pinera  Pro-(SEQ ID NO: 609) 113117749- et al.,  moter 113117767 Nat Methods, 2013MyoD  CCTGGGCTCCGGGGCGTTT Chr11:  Perez-Pinera  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 610) 17719509- et al.,  moter  17719527 Nat Methods, 2013 MyoD GGCCCCTGCGGCCACCCCG Chr11:  Perez-Pinera  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 611) 17719422- et al.,  moter  17719440 Nat Methods, 2013 MyoD CTCCCTCCCTGCCCGGTAG Chr11:  Perez-Pinera  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 612) 17719350- et al.,  moter  17719368 Nat Methods, 2013 MyoD AGGTTTGGAAAGGGCGTGC Chr11:  Perez-Pinera  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 613) 17719290- et al.,  moter  17719308 Nat Methods, 2013 Oct4 ACTCCACTGCACTCCAGTCT Chr6:  Hu et al.,  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 614)  31170953-Nucleic   moter  31170934 Acids Res, 2014 Oct4  TCTGTGGGGGACCTGCACTGChr6:  Hu et al.,  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 615)  31170885- Nucleic moter 31170866 Acids Res, 2014 Oct4  GGGGCGCCAGTTGTGTCTCC Chr6:  Hu et al., Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 616)  31170855- Nucleic  moter  31170836 Acids Res,2014 Oct4  ACACCATTGCCACCACCATT Chr6:  Hu et al.,  Pro- (SEQ ID NO: 617) 31170816- Nucleic  moter  31170797 Acids Res, 2014

The 3 days post-transfection cells were harvested and assayed by RT-QPCRfor mRNA expression. The RT-QPCR primer sequences are listed in Table14.

TABLE 14 RT-QPCR Primers Primer Primer Sequence Target (5′-3′) ReferenceGAPDH CAATGACCCCTTCATTGACC Perez- Forward (SEQ ID NO: 618) Pinera et al., Nat  Methods,  2013 GAPDH TTGATTTTGGAGGGATCTCG Perez-  Reverse(SEQ ID NO: 619) Pinera   et al., Nat Methods, 2013 IL1RNGGAATCCATGGAGGGAAGAT Perez-  Forward (SEQ ID NO: 620) Pinera   et al.,Nat Methods, 2013 IL1RN TGTTCTCGCTCAGGTCAGTG Perez-  Reverse(SEQ ID NO: 621) Pinera   et al., Nat Methods, 2013 MyoDCTCTCTGCTCCTTTGCCACA Perez-  Forward (SEQ ID NO: 622) Pinera   et al.,Nat Methods, 2013 MyoD GTGCTCTTCGGGTTTCAGGA Perez-  Reverse(SEQ ID NO: 623) Pinera   et al., Nat Methods, 2013 0ct4CGAAAGAGAAAGCGAACCAGTATCGAGAAC Hu et al.,  Forward (SEQ ID NO: 624)Nucleic  Acids Res, 2014 0ct4 CGTTGTGCATAGTCGCTGCTTGATCGC Hu et al., Reverse (SEQ ID NO: 625) Nucleic  Acids Res, 2014

RT-QPCR was normalized to GAPDH expression using the ΔΔC_(t) method.Results are expressed as fold-increase expression of the gene ofinterest relative to cells treated with Lipofectamine only without DNAtransfected (“No DNA”) (See FIGS. 60A-60C).

FIG. 62 shows that mutating residues in the p300 HAT domain causes aloss of its ability to activate gene expression. FIGS. 63A-63B show thatmultiple gRNAs work synergistically with dCas-9-p300, as showed withdCas-9-VP64.

Example 24

FIGS. 64A-64C show TALEN mediated integration of minidystrophin at the5′UTR of the Dp427m skeletal muscle isoform of dystrophin in skeletalmyoblast cell lines derived from human DMD patients carrying differentdeletions in the dystrophin gene. DMD patient cells were electroporatedwith constructs encoding a TALEN pair active at the 5′UTR locus and adonor template carrying the minidystrophin gene. FIG. 64A shows aschematic of how minidystrophin was integrated into the 5′UTR. FIG. 64Bshows that hygromycin-resistant clonal cell lines were isolated andscreened by PCR for successful site-specific integrations at the 5′UTRusing the primers shown in FIG. 64A. Asterisks indicate clones selectedfor further analysis in FIG. 64C. FIG. 64C shows that clonally isolatedDMD myoblasts with detected integration events were differentiated for 6days and assessed for expression of an HA tag fused to the C terminus ofminidystrophin.

It is understood that the foregoing detailed description andaccompanying examples are merely illustrative and are not to be taken aslimitations upon the scope of the invention, which is defined solely bythe appended claims and their equivalents.

Various changes and modifications to the disclosed embodiments will beapparent to those skilled in the art. Such changes and modifications,including without limitation those relating to the chemical structures,substituents, derivatives, intermediates, syntheses, compositions,formulations, or methods of use of the invention, may be made withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope thereof.

Appendix hCas9-T2A-GFP DNA sequence: SEQ ID NO: 145 (SpCas9human optimized sequence, HA tag, T2A peptide, eGFP sequence)gccaccATGGACAAGAAGTACTCCATTGGGCTCGATATCGGCACAAACAGCGTCGGCTGGGCCGTCATTACGGACGAGTACAAGGTGCCGAGCAAAAAATTCAAAGTTCTGGGCAATACCGATCGCCACAGCATAAAGAAGAACCTCATTGGCGCCCTCCTGTTCGACTCCGGGGAGACGGCCGAAGCCACGCGGCTCAAAAGAACAGCACGGCGCAGATATACCCGCAGAAAGAATCGGATCTGCTACCTGCAGGAGATCTTTAGTAATGAGATGGCTAAGGTGGATGACTCTTTCTTCCATAGGCTGGAGGAGTCCTTTTTGGTGGAGGAGGATAAAAAGCACGAGCGCCACCCAATCTTTGGCAATATCGTGGACGAGGTGGCGTACCATGAAAAGTACCCAACCATATATCATCTGAGGAAGAAGCTTGTAGACAGTACTGATAAGGCTGACTTGCGGTTGATCTATCTCGCGCTGGCGCATATGATCAAATTTCGGGGACACTTCCTCATCGAGGGGGACCTGAACCCAGACAACAGCGATGTCGACAAACTCTTTATCCAACTGGTTCAGACTTACAATCAGCTTTTCGAAGAGAACCCGATCAACGCATCCGGAGTTGACGCCAAAGCAATCCTGAGCGCTAGGCTGTCCAAATCCCGGCGGCTCGAAAACCTCATCGCACAGCTCCCTGGGGAGAAGAAGAACGGCCTGTTTGGTAATCTTATCGCCCTGTCACTCGGGCTGACCCCCAACTTTAAATCTAACTTCGACCTGGCCGAAGATGCCAAGCTTCAACTGAGCAAAGACACCTACGATGATGATCTCGACAATCTGCTGGCCCAGATCGGCGACCAGTACGCAGACCTTTTTTTGGCGGCAAAGAACCTGTCAGACGCCATTCTGCTGAGTGATATTCTGCGAGTGAACACGGAGATCACCAAAGCTCCGCTGAGCGCTAGTATGATCAAGCGCTATGATGAGCACCACCAAGACTTGACTTTGCTGAAGGCCCTTGTCAGACAGCAACTGCCTGAGAAGTACAAGGAAATTTTCTTCGATCAGTCTAAAAATGGCTACGCCGGATACATTGACGGCGGAGCAAGCCAGGAGGAATTTTACAAATTTATTAAGCCCATCTTGGAAAAAATGGACGGCACCGAGGAGCTGCTGGTAAAGCTTAACAGAGAAGATCTGTTGCGCAAACAGCGCACTTTCGACAATGGAAGCATCCCCCACCAGATTCACCTGGGCGAACTGCACGCTATCCTCAGGCGGCAAGAGGATTTCTACCCCTTTTTGAAAGATAACAGGGAAAAGATTGAGAAAATCCTCACATTTCGGATACCCTACTATGTAGGCCCCCTCGCCCGGGGAAATTCCAGATTCGCGTGGATGACTCGCAAATCAGAAGAGACCATCACTCCCTGGAACTTCGAGGAAGTCGTGGATAAGGGGGCCTCTGCCCAGTCCTTCATCGAAAGGATGACTAACTTTGATAAAAATCTGCCTAACGAAAAGGTGCTTCCTAAACACTCTCTGCTGTACGAGTACTTCACAGTTTATAACGAGCTCACCAAGGTCAAATACGTCACAGAAGGGATGAGAAAGCCAGCATTCCTGTCTGGAGAGCAGAAGAAAGCTATCGTGGACCTCCTCTTCAAGACGAACCGGAAAGTTACCGTGAAACAGCTCAAAGAAGACTATTTCAAAAAGATTGAATGTTTCGACTCTGTTGAAATCAGCGGAGTGGAGGATCGCTTCAACGCATCCCTGGGAACGTATCACGATCTCCTGAAAATCATTAAAGACAAGGACTTCCTGGACAATGAGGAGAACGAGGACATTCTTGAGGACATTGTCCTCACCCTTACGTTGTTTGAAGATAGGGAGATGATTGAAGAACGCTTGAAAACTTACGCTCATCTCTTCGACGACAAAGTCATGAAACAGCTCAAGAGGCGCCGATATACAGGATGGGGGCGGCTGTCAAGAAAACTGATCAATGGGATCCGAGACAAGCAGAGTGGAAAGACAATCCTGGATTTTCTTAAGTCCGATGGATTTGCCAACCGGAACTTCATGCAGTTGATCCATGATGACTCTCTCACCTTTAAGGAGGACATCCAGAAAGCACAAGTTTCTGGCCAGGGGGACAGTCTTCACGAGCACATCGCTAATCTTGCAGGTAGCCCAGCTATCAAAAAGGGAATACTGCAGACCGTTAAGGTCGTGGATGAACTCGTCAAAGTAATGGGAAGGCATAAGCCCGAGAATATCGTTATCGAGATGGCCCGAGAGAACCAAACTACCCAGAAGGGACAGAAGAACAGTAGGGAAAGGATGAAGAGGATTGAAGAGGGTATAAAAGAACTGGGGTCCCAAATCCTTAAGGAACACCCAGTTGAAAACACCCAGCTTCAGAATGAGAAGCTCTACCTGTACTACCTGCAGAACGGCAGGGACATGTACGTGGATCAGGAACTGGACATCAATCGGCTCTCCGACTACGACGTGGATCATATCGTGCCCCAGTCTTTTCTCAAAGATGATTCTATTGATAATAAAGTGTTGACAAGATCCGATAAAAATAGAGGGAAGAGTGATAACGTCCCCTCAGAAGAAGTTGTCAAGAAAATGAAAAATTATTGGCGGCAGCTGCTGAACGCCAAACTGATCACACAACGGAAGTTCGATAATCTGACTAAGGCTGAACGAGGTGGCCTGTCTGAGTTGGATAAAGCCGGCTTCATCAAAAGGCAGCTTGTTGAGACACGCCAGATCACCAAGCACGTGGCCCAAATTCTCGATTCACGCATGAACACCAAGTACGATGAAAATGACAAACTGATTCGAGAGGTGAAAGTTATTACTCTGAAGTCTAAGCTGGTCTCAGATTTCAGAAAGGACTTTCAGTTTTATAAGGTGAGAGAGATCAACAATTACCACCATGCGCATGATGCCTACCTGAATGCAGTGGTAGGCACTGCACTTATCAAAAAATATCCCAAGCTTGAATCTGAATTTGTTTACGGAGACTATAAAGTGTACGATGTTAGGAAAATGATCGCAAAGTCTGAGCAGGAAATAGGCAAGGCCACCGCTAAGTACTTCTTTTACAGCAATATTATGAATTTTTTCAAGACCGAGATTACACTGGCCAATGGAGAGATTCGGAAGCGACCACTTATCGAAACAAACGGAGAAACAGGAGAAATCGTGTGGGACAAGGGTAGGGATTTCGCGACAGTCCGGAAGGTCCTGTCCATGCCGCAGGTGAACATCGTTAAAAAGACCGAAGTACAGACCGGAGGCTTCTCCAAGGAAAGTATCCTCCCGAAAAGGAACAGCGACAAGCTGATCGCACGCAAAAAAGATTGGGACCCCAAGAAATACGGCGGATTCGATTCTCCTACAGTCGCTTACAGTGTACTGGTTGTGGCCAAAGTGGAGAAAGGGAAGTCTAAAAAACTCAAAAGCGTCAAGGAACTGCTGGGCATCACAATCATGGAGCGATCAAGCTTCGAAAAAAACCCCATCGACTTTCTCGAGGCGAAAGGATATAAAGAGGTCAAAAAAGACCTCATCATTAAGCTTCCCAAGTACTCTCTCTTTGAGCTTGAAAACGGCCGGAAACGAATGCTCGCTAGTGCGGGCGAGCTGCAGAAAGGTAACGAGCTGGCACTGCCCTCTAAATACGTTAATTTCTTGTATCTGGCCAGCCACTATGAAAAGCTCAAAGGGTCTCCCGAAGATAATGAGCAGAAGCAGCTGTTCGTGGAACAACACAAACACTACCTTGATGAGATCATCGAGCAAATAAGCGAATTCTCCAAAAGAGTGATCCTCGCCGACGCTAACCTCGATAAGGTGCTTTCTGCTTACAATAAGCACAGGGATAAGCCCATCAGGGAGCAGGCAGAAAACATTATCCACTTGTTTACTCTGACCAACTTGGGCGCGCCTGCAGCCTTCAAGTACTTCGACACCACCATAGACAGAAAGCGGTACACCTCTACAAAGGAGGTCCTGGACGCCACACTGATTCATCAGTCAATTACGGGGCTCTATGAAACAAGAATCGACCTCTCTCAGCTCGGTGGAGACAGCAGGGCTGACCCCAAGAAGAAGAGGAAGGTGGCTAGCGAGGGCAAGAGGAAGTCTTCTAACATGCGGTGACGTGGAGGAGAATCCCGG CCCTGgtacC

AccggTTAG AAV/Rosa26 construct (SEQ ID NO: 456)ggggggggggggggggggttggccactccctctctgcgcgctcgctcgctcactgaggccgggcgaccaaaggtcgcccgacgcccgggctttgcccgggcggcctcagtgagcgagcgagcgcgcagagagggagtggccaactccatcactaggggttcctagatctgaattcggtacccgttacataacttacggtaaatggcccgcctggctgaccgcccaacgacccccgcccattgacgtcaataatgacgtatgttcccatagtaacgccaatagggactttccattgacgtcaatgggtggagtatttacggtaaactgcccacttggcagtacatcaagtgtatcatatgccaagtacgccccctattgacgtcaatgacggtaaatggcccgcctggcattatgcccagtacatgaccttatgggactttcctacttggcagtacatctacgtattagtcatcgctattaccatggtgatgcggttttggcagtacatcaatgggcgtggatagcggtttgactcacggggatttccaagtctccaccccattgacgtcaatgggagtttgttttggcaccaaaatcaacgggactttccaaaatgtcgtaacaactccgccccattgacgcaaatgggcggtaggcgtgtacggtgggaggtctatataagcagagctcgtttagtgaaccgtcagatcgcctggagacgccatccacgctgttttgacctccatagaagacaccgggaccgatccagcctccggactctagaggatccggtactcgaggaactgaaaaaccagaaagttaactggtaagtttagtctttttgtcttttatttcaggtcccggatccggtggtggtgcaaatcaaagaactgctcctcagtggatgttgcctttacttctaggcctgtacggaagtgttacttctgctctaaaagctgcggaattgtacccgcggcccgggatccaccggTGGCTAGCgtctataggcccacccccTTGGTGGAATTCGCCATGAGGTCTGACTACAAAGACCATGACGGTGATTATAAAGATCATGACATCGATTACAAGGATGACGATGACAAGATGGCCCCCAAGAAGAAGaggaaggtgggcctcgaGCCCGGAGAAAAACCGTACAAGTGCCCTGAGTGCGGGAAATCATTCTCCGACCCTGGGGCGCTCGTCCGGCACCAAAGGACGCATACAGGGGAAAAGCCGTATAAGTGCCCCGAGTGTGGAAAGAGCTTCTCGCAGAGAGCCCACCTTGAACGACACCAAAGAACACACACTGGTGAGAAACCCTATAAGTGTCCAGAGTGCGGCAAATCGTTTAGCAGATCCGATGACTTGGTGCGCCACCAGCGGACACACACGGGTGAAAAGCCCTACAAATGCCCGGAGTGTGGGAAGTCGTTTTCAAGGTCGGATCATCTGACTACCCATCAGCGCACCCATACGGGAGCggccgcccgcgccctGGTGAAGAGCGAGCTGGAGGAGAAGAAGTCCGAGCTGCGGCACAAGCTGAAGTACGTGCCCCACGAGTACATCGAGCTGATCGAGATCGCCAGGAACCCCACCCAGGACCGCATCCTGGAGATGAAGGTGATGGAGTTCTTCATGAAGGTGTACGGCTACAGGGGAGAGCACCTGGGCGGAAGCAGAAAGCCTGACGGCGCCATCTATACAGTGGGCAGCCCCATCGATTACGGCGTGATCGTGGACACAAAGGCCTACAGCGGCGGCTACAATCTGCCTATCGGCCAGGCCGACGAGATGCAGAGATACGTGAAGGAGAACCAGACCCGGAATAAGCACATCAACCCCAACGAGTGGTGGAAGGTGTACCCTAGCAGCGTGACCGAGTTCAAGTTCCTGTTCGTGAGCGGCCACTTCAAGGGCAACTACAAGGCCCAGCTGACCAGGCTGAACCGCAAAACCAACTGCAATGGCGCCGTGCTGAGCGTGGAGGAGCTGCTGATCGGCGGCGAGATGATCAAAGCCGGCACCCTGACACTGGAGGAGGTGCGGCGCAAGTTCAACAACGGCGAGATCAACTTCGAGGGCAGAGGAAGTCTTCTAACATGCGGTGACGTGGAGGAGAATCCCGGCCCTAgatcTGACTACAAAGACCATGACGGTGATTATAAAGATCATGACATCGATTACAAGGATGACGATGACAAGATGGCCCCCAAGAAGAAGaggaaggtgggcctcgagccGGGAGAGAAGCCGTACAAGTGTCCCGAATGTGGAAAGAGCTTCTCACAGTCGGGGGACCTTCGGCGCCACCAGCGCACACATACTGGTGAAAAGCCGTATAAGTGTCCAGAATGTGGCAAATCATTCTCCACATCAGGGAGCCTGGTCAGGCACCAGCGAACCCACACGGGTGAGAAGCCCTATAAGTGCCCCGAATGCGGGAAGTCCTTTTCGCAGAGAGCCCACTTGGAGAGGCACCAGAGGACCCATACGGGGGAGAAACCTTACAAGTGCCCTGAATGCGGAAAGTCGTTCTCGACCCATCTGGATCTCATCAGACATCAGAGAACGCACACTGGAGAGAAACCCTACAAATGTCCCGAGTGTGGGAAGTCGTTTAGCCGAAAGGACAATCTCAAAAACCATCAACGGACACACACGGGTGAAAAACCATACAAATGCCCGGAGTGCGGCAAATCGTTTTCCCAACTTGCGCACTTGCGGGCACACCAACGCACGCATACTGGAGCGGCCGCccgcgccCTGGTGAAGAGCGAGCTGGAGGAGAAGAAGTCCGAGCTGCGGCACAAGCTGAAGTACGTGCCCCACGAGTACATCGAGCTGATCGAGATCGCCAGGAACCCCACCCAGGACCGCATCCTGGAGATGAAGGTGATGGAGTTCTTCATGAAGGTGTACGGCTACAGGGGAGAGCACCTGGGCGGAAGCAGAAAGCCTGACGGCGCCATCTATACAGTGGGCAGCCCCATCGATTACGGCGTGATCGTGGACACAAAGGCCTACAGCGGCGGCTACAATCTGCCTATCGGCCAGGCCGACGAGATGGAGAGATACGTGGAGGAGAACCAGACACGGGATAAGCACCTCAACCCCAACGAGTGGTGGAAGGTGTACCCTAGCAGCGTGACCGAGTTCAAGTTCCTGTTCGTGAGCGGCCACTTCAAGGGCAACTACAAGGCCCAGCTGACCAGGCTGAACCACATCACCAACTGCAATGGCGCCGTGCTGAGCGTGGAGGAGCTGCTGATCGGCGGCGAGATGATCAAAGCCGGCACCCTGACACTGGAGGAGGTGCGGCGCAAGTTCAACAACGGCGAGATCAACTTCTGATTAATTAACTAATCTAGAGTcgactagagctcgctgatcagcctcgactgtgccttctagttgccagccatctgttgtttgcccctcccccgtgccttccttgaccctggaaggtgccactcccactgtcctttcctaataaaatgaggaaattgcatcgcattgtctgagtaggtgtcattctattctggggggtggggtggggcaggacagcaagggggaggattgggaagacaatagcaggcatgctggggagagatctaggaacccctagtgatggagttggccactccctctctgcgcgctcgctcgctcactgaggccgcccgggcaaagcccgggcgtcgggcgacctttggtcgcccggcctcagtgagcgagcgagcgcgcagagagggagtggccaacccccccccccccccccctgcagcccagctgcattaatgaatcggccaacgcgcggggagaggcggtttgcgtattgggcgctcttccgcttcctcgctcactgactcgctgcgctcggtcgttcggctgcggcgagcggtatcagctcactcaaaggcggtaatacggttatccacagaatcaggggataacgcaggaaagaacatgtgagcaaaaggccagcaaaaggccaggaaccgtaaaaaggccgcgttgctggcgtttttccataggctccgcccccctgacgagcatcacaaaaatcgacgctcaagtcagaggtggcgaaacccgacaggactataaagataccaggcgtttccccctggaagctccctcgtgcgctctcctgttccgaccctgccgcttaccggatacctgtccgcctttctcccttcgggaagcgtggcgctttctcaatgctcacgctgtaggtatctcagttcggtgtaggtcgttcgctccaagctgggctgtgtgcacgaaccccccgttcagcccgaccgctgcgccttatccggtaactatcgtcttgagtccaacccggtaagacacgacttatcgccactggcagcagccactggtaacaggattagcagagcgaggtatgtaggcggtgctacagagttcttgaagtggtggcctaactacggctacactagaaggacagtatttggtatctgcgctctgctgaagccagttaccttcggaaaaagagttggtagctcttgatccggcaaacaaaccaccgctggtagcggtggtttttttgtttgcaagcagcagattacgcgcagaaaaaaaggatctcaagaagatcctttgatcttttctacggggtctgacgctcagtggaacgaaaactcacgttaagggattttggtcatgagattatcaaaaaggatcttcacctagatccttttaaattaaaaatgaagttttaaatcaatctaaagtatatatgagtaaacttggtctgacagttaccaatgcttaatcagtgaggcacctatctcagcgatctgtctatttcgttcatccatagttgcctgactccccgtcgtgtagataactacgatacgggagggcttaccatctggccccagtgctgcaatgataccgcgagacccacgctcaccggctccagatttatcagcaataaaccagccagccggaagggccgagcgcagaagtggtcctgcaactttatccgcctccatccagtctattaattgttgccgggaagctagagtaagtagttcgccagttaatagtttgcgcaacgttgttgccattgctacaggcatcgtggtgtcacgctcgtcgtttggtatggcttcattcagctccggttcccaacgatcaaggcgagttacatgatcccccatgttgtgcaaaaaagcggttagctccttcggtcctccgatcgttgtcagaagtaagttggccgcagtgttatcactcatggttatggcagcactgcataattctcttactgtcatgccatccgtaagatgcttttctgtgactggtgagtactcaaccaagtcattctgagaatagtgtatgcggcgaccgagttgctcttgcccggcgtcaatacgggataataccgcgccacatagcagaactttaaaagtgctcatcattggaaaacgttcttcggggcgaaaactctcaaggatcttaccgctgttgagatccagttcgatgtaacccactcgtgcacccaactgatcttcagcatcttttactttcaccagcgtttctgggtgagcaaaaacaggaaggcaaaatgccgcaaaaaagggaataagggcgacacggaaatgttgaatactcatactcttcctttttcaatattattgaagcatttatcagggttattgtctcatgagcggatacatatttgaatgtatttagaaaaataaacaaataggggttccgcgcacatttccccgaaaagtgccacctgacgtctaagaaaccattattatcatgacattaacctataaaaataggcgtatcacgaggccctttcgtctcgcgcgtttcggtgatgacggtgaaaacctctgacacatgcagctcccggagacggtcacagcttgtctgtaagcggatgccgggagcagacaagcccgtcagggcgcgtcagcgggtgttggcgggtgtcggggctggcttaactatgcggcatcagagcagattgtactgagagtgcaccatatgcggtgtgaaataccgcacagatgcgtaaggagaaaataccgcatcaggaaattgtaaacgttaatattttgttaaaattcgcgttaaatttttgttaaatcagctcattttttaaccaataggccgaaatcggcaaaatcccttataaatcaaaagaatagaccgagatagggttgagtgttgttccagtttggaacaagagtccactattaaagaacgtggactccaacgtcaaagggcgaaaaaccgtctatcagggcgatggcccactacgtgaaccatcaccctaatcaagttttttggggtcgaggtgccgtaaagcactaaatcggaaccctaaagggagcccccgatttagagcttgacggggaaagccggcgaacgtggcgagaaaggaagggaagaaagcgaaaggagcgggcgctagggcgctggcaagtgtagcggtcacgctgcgcgtaaccaccacacccgccgcgcttaatgcgccgctacagggcgcgtcgcgccattcgccattcaggctacgcaactgttgggaagggcgatcggtgcgggcctcttcgctattacgccagctggctgcaHS2 Enhancer Target Sequence (SEQ ID NO: 467)taagcttcagtttttccttagttcctgttacatttctgtgtgtctccattagtgacctcccatagtccaagcatgagcagttctggccaggcccctgtcggggtcagtgccccacccccgccttctggttctgtgtaaccttctaagcaaaccttctggctcaagcacagcaatgctgagtcatgatgagtcatgctgaggcttagggtgtgtgcccagatgttctcagcctagagtgatgactcctatctgggtccccagcaggatgcttacagggcagatggcaaaaaaaaggagaagctgaccacctgactaaaactccacctcaaacggcatcataaagaaaatggatgcctgagacagaatgtgacatattctagaatatattdSpCas9-KRAB Sequence (SEQ ID NO: 466)ATGGACTACAAAGACCATGACGGTGATTATAAAGATCATGACATCGATTACAAGGATGACGATGACAAGatggcccccaagaagaagaggaaggtgggccgcggaATGGACAAGAAGTACTCCATTGGGCTCGCCATCGGCACAAACAGCGTCGGCTGGGCCGTCATTACGGACGAGTACAAGGTGCCGAGCAAAAAATTCAAAGTTCTGGGCAATACCGATCGCCACAGCATAAAGAAGAACCTCATTGGCGCCCTCCTGTTCGACTCCGGGGAAACCGCCGAAGCCACGCGGCTCAAAAGAACAGCACGGCGCAGATATACCCGCAGAAAGAATCGGATCTGCTACCtgcaGGAGATCTTTAGTAATGAGATGGCTAAGGTGGATGACTCTTTCTTCCATAGGCTGGAGGAGTCCTTTTTGGTGGAGGAGGATAAAAAGCACGAGCGCCACCCAATCTTTGGCAATATCGTGGACGAGGTGGCGTACCATGAAAAGTACCCAACCATATATCATCTGAGGAAGAAGCTTGTAGACAGTACTGATAAGGCTGACTTGCGGTTGATCTATCTCGCGCTGGCGCATATGATCAAATTTCGGGGACACTTCCTCATCGAGGGGGACCTGAACCCAGACAACAGCGATGTCGACAAACTCTTTATCCAACTGGTTCAGACTTACAATCAGCTTTTCGAAGAGAACCCGATCAACGCATCCGGAGTTGACGCCAAAGCAATCCTGAGCGCTAGGCTGTCCAAATCCCGGCGGCTCGAAAACCTCATCGCACAGCTCCCTGGGGAGAAGAAGAACGGCCTGTTTGGTAATCTTATCGCCCTGTCACTCGGGCTGACCCCCAACTTTAAATCTAACTTCGACCTGGCCGAAGATGCCAAGCTTCAACTGAGCAAAGACACCTACGATGATGATCTCGACAATCTGCTGGCCCAGATCGGCGACCAGTACGCAGACCTTTTTTTGGCGGCAAAGAACCTGTCAGACGCCATTCTGCTGAGTGATATTCTGCGAGTGAACACGGAGATCACCAAAGCTCCGCTGAGCGCTAGTATGATCAAGCGCTATGATGAGCACCACCAAGACTTGACTTTGCTGAAGGCCCTTGTCAGACAGCAACTGCCTGAGAAGTACAAGGAAATTTTCTTCGATCAGTCTAAAAATGGCTACGCCGGATACATTGACGGCGGAGCAAGCCAGGAGGAATTTTACAAATTTATTAAGCCCATCTTGGAAAAAATGGACGGCACCGAGGAGCTGCTGGTAAAGCTTAACAGAGAAGATCTGTTGCGCAAACAGCGCACTTTCGACAATGGAAGCATCCCCCACCAGATTCACCTGGGCGAACTGCACGCTATCCTCAGGCGGCAAGAGGATTTCTACCCCTTTTTGAAAGATAACAGGGAAAAGATTGAGAAAATCCTCACATTTCGGATACCCTACTATGTAGGCCCCCTCGCCCGGGGAAATTCCAGATTCGCGTGGATGACTCGCAAATCAGAAGAGACCATCACTCCCTGGAACTTCGAGGAAGTCGTGGATAAGGGGGCCTCTGCCCAGTCCTTCATCGAAAGGATGACTAACTTTGATAAAAATCTGCCTAACGAAAAGGTGCTTCCTAAACACTCTCTGCTGTACGAGTACTTCACAGTTTATAACGAGCTCACCAAGGTCAAATACGTCACAGAAGGGATGAGAAAGCCAGCATTCCTGTCTGGAGAGCAGAAGAAAGCTATCGTGGACCTCCTCTTCAAGACGAACCGGAAAGTTACCGTGAAACAGCTCAAAGAAGACTATTTCAAAAAGATTGAATGTTTCGACTCTGTTGAAATCAGCGGAGTGGAGGATCGCTTCAACGCATCCCTGGGAACGTATCACGATCTCCTGAAAATCATTAAAGACAAGGACTTCCTGGACAATGAGGAGAACGAGGACATTCTTGAGGACATTGTCCTCACCCTTACGTTGTTTGAAGATAGGGAGATGATTGAAGAACGCTTGAAAACTTACGCTCATCTCTTCGACGACAAAGTCATGAAACAGCTCAAGAGGCGCCGATATACAGGATGGGGGCGGCTGTCAAGAAAACTGATCAATGGgatcCGAGACAAGCAGAGTGGAAAGACAATCCTGGATTTTCTTAAGTCCGATGGATTTGCCAACCGGAACTTCATGCAGTTGATCCATGATGACTCTCTCACCTTTAAGGAGGACATCCAGAAAGCACAAGTTTCTGGCCAGGGGGACAGTCTTCACGAGCACATCGCTAATCTTGCAGGTAGCCCAGCTATCAAAAAGGGAATACTGCAGACCGTTAAGGTCGTGGATGAACTCGTCAAAGTAATGGGAAGGCATAAGCCCGAGAATATCGTTATCGAGATGGCCCGAGAGAACCAAACTACCCAGAAGGGACAGAAGAACAGTAGGGAAAGGATGAAGAGGATTGAAGAGGGTATAAAAGAACTGGGGTCCCAAATCCTTAAGGAACACCCAGTTGAAAACACCCAGCTTCAGAATGAGAAGCTCTACCTGTACTACCTGCAGAACGGCAGGGACATGTACGTGGATCAGGAACTGGACATCAATCGGCTCTCCGACTACGACGTGGATGCCATCGTGCCCCAGTCTTTTCTCAAAGATGATTCTATTGATAATAAAGTGTTGACAAGATCCGATAAAAATAGAGGGAAGAGTGATAACGTCCCCTCAGAAGAAGTTGTCAAGAAAATGAAAAATTATTGGCGGCAGCTGCTGAACGCCAAACTGATCACACAACGGAAGTTCGATAATCTGACTAAGGCTGAACGAGGTGGCCTGTCTGAGTTGGATAAAGCCGGCTTCATCAAAAGGCAGCTTGTTGAGACACGCCAGATCACCAAgcacGTGGCCCAAATTCTCGATTCACGCATGAACACCAAGTACGATGAAAATGACAAACTGATTCGAGAGGTGAAAGTTATTACTCTGAAGTCTAAGCTGGTCTCAGATTTCAGAAAGGACTTTCAGTTTTATAAGGTGAGAGAGATCAACAATTACCACCATGCGCATGATGCCTACCTGAATGCAGTGGTAGGCACTGCACTTATCAAAAAATATCCCAAGCTTGAATCTGAATTTGTTTACGGAGACTATAAAGTGTACGATGTTAGGAAAATGATCGCAAAGTCTGAGCAGGAAATAGGCAAGGCCACCGCTAAGTACTTCTTTTACAGCAATATTATGAATTTTTTCAAGACCGAGATTACACTGGCCAATGGAGAGATTCGGAAGCGACCACTTATCGAAACAAACGGAGAAACAGGAGAAATCGTGTGGGACAAGGGTAGGGATTTCGCGACAGTCCGGAAGGTCCTGTCCATGCCGCAGGTGAACATCGTTAAAAAGACCGAAGTACAGACCGGAGGCTTCTCCAAGGAAAGTATCCTCCCGAAAAGGAACAGCGACAAGCTGATCGCACGCAAAAAAGATTGGGACCCCAAGAAATACGGCGGATTCGATTCTCCTACAGTCGCTTACAGTGTACTGGTTGTGGCCAAAGTGGAGAAAGGGAAGTCTAAAAAACTCAAAAGCGTCAAGGAACTGCTGGGCATCACAATCATGGAGCGATCAAGCTTCGAAAAAAACCCCATCGACTTTCTCGAGGCGAAAGGATATAAAGAGGTCAAAAAAGACCTCATCATTAAGCTTCCCAAGTACTCTCTCTTTGAGCTTGAAAACGGCCGGAAACGAATGCTCGCTAGTGCGGGCGAGCTGCAGAAAGGTAACGAGCTGGCACTGCCCTCTAAATACGTTAATTTCTTGTATCTGGCCAGCCACTATGAAAAGCTCAAAGGGTCTCCCGAAGATAATGAGCAGAAGCAGCTGTTCGTGGAACAACACAAACACTACCTTGATGAGATCATCGAGCAAATAAGCGAATTCTCCAAAAGAGTGATCCTCGCCGACGCTAACCTCGATAAGGTGCTTTCTGCTTACAATAAGCACAGGGATAAGCCCATCAGGGAGCAGGCAGAAAACATTATCCACTTGTTTACTCTGACCAACTTGGGCGCGCCTGCAGCCTTCAAGTACTTCGACACCACCATAGACAGAAAGCGGTACACCTCTACAAAGGAGGTCCTGGACGCCACACTGATTCATCAGTCAATTACGGGGCTCTATGAAACAAGAATCGACCTCTCTCAGCTCGGTGGAGACAGCAGGGCTGACCCCAAGAAGAAGAGGAAGGTGGctagCGATGCTAAGTCACTGACTGCCTGGTCCCGGACACTGGTGACCTTCAAGGATGTGTTTGTGGACTTCACCAGGGAGGAGTGGAAGCTGCTGGACACTGCTCAGCAGATCCTGTACAGAAATGTGATGCTGGAGAACTATAAGAACCTGGTTTCCTTGGGTTATCAGCTTACTAAGCCAGATGTGATCCTCCGGTTGGAGAAGGGAGAAGAGCCCTGGCTGGTGGAGAGAGAAATTCACCAAGAGACCCATCCTGATTCAGAGACTGCATTTGAAATCAAATCATCAGTTCCGAAAAAGAAACG CAAAGttGctagCG

What is claimed is:
 1. A DNA targeting system that binds to a humangamma globin gene comprising at least one guide RNA (gRNA) that bindsand targets a polynucleotide sequence selected from SEQ ID NO: 33, 34,35, or 36, or variant thereof.
 2. The DNA targeting system of claim 1,further comprising a fusion protein comprising two heterologouspolypeptide domains, wherein the first polypeptide domain comprises aClustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats associated(Cas) protein and the second polypeptide domain has an activity selectedfrom the group consisting of transcription activation activity,transcription repression activity, transcription release factoractivity, histone modification activity, nuclease activity, nucleic acidassociation activity, methylase activity, and demethylase activity, andwherein the fusion protein comprises an amino acid sequence selectedfrom SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 674-676.
 3. A DNA targeting system that binds toa human gamma globin gene comprising at least one guide RNA (gRNA) and afusion protein comprising two heterologous polypeptide domains, whereinthe first polypeptide domain comprises a Clustered Regularly InterspacedShort Palindromic Repeats associated (Cas) protein and the secondpolypeptide domain has an activity selected from the group consisting oftranscription activation activity, transcription repression activity,transcription release factor activity, histone modification activity,nuclease activity, nucleic acid association activity, methylaseactivity, and demethylase activity, wherein the at least one guide RNA(gRNA) binds and targets a polynucleotide sequence selected from SEQ IDNO: 33, 34, 35, or 36, or variant thereof, and wherein the fusionprotein comprises an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs: 1 and674-676.
 4. The DNA targeting system claim 2, wherein the Cas proteincomprises a Cas9, wherein the Cas9 comprises at least one amino acidmutation which knocks out nuclease activity of Cas9.
 5. The DNAtargeting system of claim 4, wherein the at least one amino acidmutation is at least one of D10A and H840A.
 6. The DNA targeting systemof claim 5, wherein the Cas protein comprises iCas9 (amino acids 36-1403of SEQ ID NO: 1).
 7. The DNA targeting system of claim 2, wherein thesecond polypeptide domain of the fusion protein comprises at least oneVP16 transcription activation domain repeat or a KRAB domain.
 8. The DNAtargeting system of claim 7, wherein the second polypeptide domain ofthe fusion protein comprises a VP16 tetramer (“VP64”) or a p65activation domain.
 9. The DNA targeting system of claim 2, wherein thefusion protein further comprises a linker connecting the firstpolypeptide domain to the second polypeptide domain.
 10. An isolatedpolynucleotide encoding the DNA targeting system of claim
 1. 11. Avector comprising the isolated polynucleotide of claim
 10. 12. A cellcomprising the isolated polynucleotide of claim
 10. 13. A method ofmodulating mammalian gene expression in a cell, the method comprisingcontacting the cell with the DNA targeting system of claim
 1. 14. Acomposition for inducing gene expression in a subject, the compositioncomprising the DNA targeting system of claim
 1. 15. A modifiedlentiviral vector comprising an isolated polynucleotide encoding the DNAtargeting system of claim 2, the isolated polynucleotide comprising afirst polynucleotide sequence encoding the fusion protein and a secondpolynucleotide sequence encoding the at least one gRNA.
 16. A method ofactivating endogenous gene expression in a subject, the methodcomprising contacting a cell with the modified lentiviral vector ofclaim
 15. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the subject is sufferingfrom sickle cell disease or thalassaemia.